Philippine Biodiversity PDF

Topic No. and Title: Topic 1: PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, the learner can: LO1. Classify solid waste according to source and composition; LO2. Explain the goals and the importance of solid waste management; LO3. Describe t...

Topic No. and Title: Topic 1: PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, the learner can: LO1. Classify solid waste according to source and composition; LO2. Explain the goals and the importance of solid waste management; LO3. Describe the techniques and strategies of reducing waste and for proper disposal of waste; and LO4. Explain the main elements of RA 9003. Contents INFORMATION SHEET Imagine, if you can, every single living thing on Earth. There are millions of species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, insects, shellfish, microorganisms, mushrooms, and plants. Try to imagine them all on a planet largely covered with water. Don’t forget to put yourself in the Picture! Now think about what makes each of those species different from the others. Think about what different kinds of habitats and climates they live in and how they interact with one another. If you can do all these, you have a good idea of what the term biodiversity means. It is a mind-boggling concept because it covers the Earth’s variety of life in all its forms and processes. Biodiversity is really about the ways that life is organized and thrives on this entire planet. And that’s a lot to think about! Every form of life is unique, warranting respect regardless of its worth to man; and to accord other organisms such recognition. Man must be guided by a moral code of action. -World Charter for Nature, UNGA OVERVIEW OF PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY Q1: What is biodiversity? Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is the variety of life and its processes, including all living organisms and the genetic differences between them, as well as the communities where they live. It includes the different plants, animals, and microorganisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems they form. This living wealth is the product of hundreds of years of evolutionary history. The process of evolution means that the pool of living diversity is dynamic; it increases when new genetic variation is produced, a new species is created or a novel ecosystem is formed; and it decreases when the genetic variation within a species decreases, a species becomes extinct or an ecosystem complex is lost. The concept emphasizes the interrelated nature of the components of the living world and its processes. The concept of Biodiversity represents the way that life is organized and the way that living things interact on our planet. These interactions can take place on scales ranging from chromosomes to organisms, ecosystems, landscapes, and even the entire world. The term biodiversity comes from bio (meaning life) and diversity(variety). It refers to the wealth of life forms found on Earth. In other words, it refers to the variety of life forms, encompassing all plants, animals, microorganisms, and the intricate ecosystem they form; in short, the totality of ecosystems, species, and genes within the area. Q2: What are the levels of biodiversity? Biodiversity is usually considered at three levels: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Genetic Diversity (Different Characteristics of Organisms) Why do we look a lot like our parents? It is because parents pass on their genes to their offspring, and the genes act like a microscopic blueprint that determines the way the offspring look. This explains why animals of the same species look more or less alike. But not exactly alike. Genes are also responsible for the differences that occur within a species. You and a friend both have two legs, but your legs may be longer or shorter than his/her legs. This is because of the great variation in genes, or genetic diversity. Without genetic diversity, we would all be identical. Genetic Diversity, therefore, refers to the variety of genes within a species. It accounts for the variation within the species, as measured by the variation in variety, subspecies, or breed. The following ideas further explain genetic diversity and its practical applications. 1. Genes are the chemical units of hereditary information that can be passed on from one generation to another. 2. As a result of genetic diversity, virtually no two individuals of the same species are identical. 3. At another level, wide-ranging species consist of many breeding populations that may exhibit geographic variation. 4. Genetic diversity is highly important in breeding and selecting improved varieties of crops, timber trees, and domesticated animals to overcome, for example, problems associated with pests and diseases, or adverse environmental conditions. 5. For example, there is only one species of rice but there are many different varieties. Each variety has a unique characteristic that makes it different varieties are combined through cross-breeding, new species may evolve. These may be varieties more resistant to pests, thus helping stabilize and improve rice production. Species Diversity (Different Life Forms) A species is a group of animals, plants, or microorganisms that are so similar that they can mate and produce fertile offspring. A horse and a cow cannot because they belong to different species. By definition, a species is a group of related or similar organisms capable of breeding freely to produce fertile offspring. It is the basic unit of biological classification and, thus, is used as a measure of biodiversity. Species Diversity refers to the millions of different species of living things on Earth. More specifically, it refers to the variety of species found within a discrete geographical boundary. Species diversity can be measured in three ways: 1. Species richness (or the number of species in a defined area) 2. Species abundance (or the relative numbers among species) 3. Taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity (i.e., genetic relationships among different groups of species) But it is usually measured in terms of the total number of species found within a particular area. Globally, the estimated total number of biological species is about 5-10 million (possibly more than 30 million). However, only about 1.4 million have been scientifically described and given names so far. The Philippines has one of the highest biodiversity indices in the world. It is known to have the highest number of endemic species per square kilometer among megadiverse countries. As much as 49% of its total known species are endemic in the country’s total land area of 300 780 kilometers. Ecosystem Diversity (Different Types of Ecosystems) An ecosystem consists of plants, animals, microorganisms, soil, water, air, and sunlight that form a living, changing community. Your backyard is a miniature ecosystem with its own web life. Birds rely on the trees in your yard for food and shelter, and the trees rely on the soil, water, and sunlight for nutrients and energy. The soil depends on rainfall, earthworms, insects, and microorganisms to keep it moist and healthy- a good place for trees and other plants to grow. Ecosystem Diversity refers to the many different types of natural communities on Earth, including rivers, swamps, meadows, rain forests, and prairies. It encompasses the broad differences between ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats and ecological processes occurring within each ecosystem type. In brief, it refers to the sum of the living and nonliving things interacting in a particular place, like in a forest. Examples of living things in a forest are plants and animals, while the nonliving things are rocks, soil, and water. All these interact with one another to ensure the continuance of the system. Q3: How are ecosystems classified in the Philippines? An ecosystem may be large or small and may have many or few living and nonliving things in it. Ecosystems are generally classified as terrestrial and aquatic as shown in the following table. Table 1. Philippine Ecosystem and Habitat Types Natural Terrestrial Natural Aquatic Ecosystems Man-made Ecosystems Ecosystems Lowland evergreen rain forest Lakes/Ponds Forest plantations Lower/upper montane forest Rivers/Streams Agro-forest areas Sub-alpine forest Freshwater marshes Agro-ecosystems Pine forest Peat swamps Aquaculture ponds Forest over ultrabasic soils Mangrove/Nipa Swamps Reservoirs Semi deciduous forest Mudflats Beach forest Sea grass beds Grassland Coral reefs Philippine Ecosystems The following are some of the different ecosystems vital to biodiversity conservation. 1. Forest Ecosystem. The tropical rain forest is considered among the richest ecosystems because it has a myriad of different trees, ferns, palms, herbs, microorganisms, insects, and other animals. Not all forest ecosystems are as diverse as tropical rain forests. 2. Agricultural Ecosystem. This is a man-made ecosystem. It is normally once forested land or swamp wetland is converted into agricultural land. It is composed of native as well as exotic species. An agricultural ecosystem is planted with different kinds of crops, which serve as food and sometimes as export products. 3. Freshwater Ecosystem. This includes bodies of flowing water such as streams and rivers, and bodies of standing water such as lakes, ponds, and swamps. 4. Coastal Ecosystem. This includes sea grasses, mangroves, mudflats, sandy beaches, and corals. a. Mangrove Ecosystem. This is a swamp forest type in brackish water (mix of salt water and fresh water). The trees have roots that stick out from the ground (prop or aerial roots). It is a primary nursery area for many fish and shellfish species. b. Coral Reef Ecosystem. This is a community of a vast variety of fishes, corals, sea cucumbers, shellfishes, and other marine life. This ecosystem is very diverse and productive because of the (1) abundance of food sources in the ocean, and (2) millions of years of evolution of many species. The relationships between the different life forms are very fragile because they are dependent on each other and they fill in specific niches like the links in a chain. If any of these relationships break down, diversity and productivity can easily be disturbed. Q4: Why is there very high biodiversity and endemism in the Philippines? The Philippines harbors a great variety of tropical habitat types that support enumerable notable wildlife forms of both plants and animals. The tremendous amount of ecological niches are variously distributed in 7107± islands, 30 000 000 hectares (300 780 square kilometers) of terrestrial and wetland freshwater environments (from the coastline to the peaks of the highest mountains), along 36 000 kilometers of coastline and in the vast expanse of the marine environment surrounding the entire country. The varying exposures to the shifting trade winds and typhoons, varying altitudes from sea level to high mountains, varying soil, and rock types, and the peculiar distribution of rainfall are the major factors that contribute to the mosaic of habitat types that characterize the Philippine ecological landscape. Diversity of Philippine Flora and Fauna Q5: How diverse are the Philippine Flora and Fauna? According to the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) of the Department of Environmental and Natural Resources (DENR), the present knowledge of biodiversity in the Philippines is relatively inadequate because it was acquired mostly from studies done by a foreign biologist during the early 1900s. Recently, more Filipino biologists and naturalists became more involved in taxonomic and biodiversity studies resulting in the identification of several species of plants and animals. Table 7-2 summarizes the level of biodiversity of Philippine flora and fauna based on the number of species per taxonomic group which has been documented by various scientists. Table 2. Biodiversity (Flora and Fauna) in the Philippines Group Estimated Number of Species I. Plants and Relatives (15 108) Algae 865 Fungi 3000 Lichens 789 Liverworts/Hornworts 518 Mosses 753 Psilopsids 3 Club mosses 77 Horsetails 1 Ferns 950 Cycads 4 Conifers 24 Gnetum 4 Flowering Plants 8120 II. Some simple Animals and Relatives (23 993) Protozoan 396 Sponges 100-200 Bryozoans Coelenterates Ctenophores Annelid Worms 700+ Q6: What is the biodiversity profile of the Philippine flora? The Philippine forests are among the world’s richest. Out of approximately 15 000 species of plants in the Philippines, 8120 species are gymnosperms or flowering plants (of which 2500 could be classified as tress, 32 species are gymnosperms (of which four are cycads), 24 are conifers and four are gnetums); 1030 species of ferns and so-called fern allies (of which 950 are ferns, one is a horsetail, 77 are club mosses and Figure 1: Rafflesia speciosa three are psilopsids); and 1271 species of bryophytes (of which 518 are liverworts and hornworts and 753 are mosses). There are 36 endemic genera and about 3500 endemic species of flowering plants. Among the lower plant forms, there are about 111 endemic species. Some scientists believe that a great percentage of our endemic plants may have been extinct by now. The virgin forests, which harbor many of the Philippine endemic species, are now down to only 900 000 hectares from a high of 12 million hectares in 1969. There are about 86 species of vascular plants occurring in Philippine mangrove areas, 48 of which are small to medium-sized trees. This forest type occurs along tidal flats at the mouth of streams and along the shores of sheltered bays. The stand is composed of eight species of the Bacauan (Rhizoporaceae family), which is a source of tanbark, cutch, dyebark, and charcoal. The Philippines is famous for its hardwoods such as Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus), Tanguile (Shorea polysperma), Red Lauan (Shorea negrosensis), White Lauan (Shorea contorta), Malaypis (Shorea palosapis), Guijo (Shorea guiso), Yakal (Shorea astylosa), Kalunti (Shorea hopeifolia), Bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan), Palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera), and Manggachapui (Hopea acuminata). In the lowland evergreen rainforest, many other species have not been fully identified and cataloged. Sea grasses and seaweeds are marine flora found along shallow coastal water, rocky shores, coral reefs, and shallow bays and cays. There are only about 50 species of sea grasses in the world, at least 16 species of which are found in Philippine waters. Of the 16 species, 11 occur in Philippine reefs. On the other hand, seaweeds have a limited distribution, ranging from the lower intertidal to the shallow subtidal zones in the marine environment. Many species are found in sheltered bays and cays, while others may be limited to the rocky, exposed areas along the shores or margins of the reefs. In the Philippines, there are 141 species of algae subdivided into three divisions: Chlorophyta (green algae), 58 species; Phaeophyta (brown algae), 23 species; and Rhodophyta (red algae), 60 species. Q7: What is the biodiversity profile of the Philippine fauna? The fauna of the Philippines is distributed aver five large districts or faunal regions, namely, Greater Mindanao, Greater Luzon, Negros-Panay, Mindoro and Greater Palawan. The country’s faunal diversity is estimated to consists of 186 species of reptiles, 556 species of birds, 230-240 species of mammals, and 20 940 species of insects. Of the 1496 bird and other animal species, 25 species are already considered threatened and 18 listed as endangered. Terrestrial Vertebrates; Land Mammals There are approximately 960 terrestrial vertebrates in the Philippines. This rich biodiversity of vertebrate species is further enhanced by a 43% level of endemism. As for land mammals, there are about 167 species with approximately 60% endemism. Some 60 mammals are native to the Philippines, while 45 species are single-island endemics. However, a number of these endemics are already endangered and/or threatened. These include the Philippine Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), the Philippine Tarsier (Tarsius syrichta), and the Philippine Spotted Deer (Cervus alfredi). Figure 2: Philippine Tamaraw (Bubalus Figure 3: Philippine Tarsier Figure 4: Philippine Spotted Deer (Cervus alfredi) mindorensis) (Tarsius syrichta) Birds Dupont (1971) listed more than 500 species of birds, of which 246 species are endemic to the Philippines such as the Philippine Eagle and the Calayan Rail, 113 species are listed as migrants, while 28 species are considered straggles. Seven species are recorded as introduced, and the rest are resident species that breed here in the Philippines. Like mammals, however, several bird species are threatened and endangered. These include the Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) Palawan Hornbill (Anthracoceros marchei) and the Peacock Pheasant (Polyplectron emphanum). Figure 5: Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga Figure 6: Palawan Hornbill Figure 7: Peacock Pheasant jefferyi) (Anthracoceros marchei) (Polyplectron emphanum) Amphibians and Reptiles As for amphibians, there are about 101 species, 78 species of which are considered endemic to our country. Philippine reptiles consist of 124 species of lizards, snakes, and land turtles. There are two crocodilian species (Crocodylus mindorensis and C. porosus) in the country, both of which are endangered. C. mindorensis, which is endemic to the Philippines and has only small wild populations remaining in Mindanao and Negros, is considered one of the most threatened crocodilians in the world. Figure 8: Crocodylus mindorensis Figure 9: Crocodylus porosus There are five (5) species of marine turtles in the country, namely: Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), the Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), the Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), the Loggerhead (Careta careta), and the Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas). While the Green and Hawksbill turtles are more common in the Philippines, all five species are already endangered due to indiscriminate hunting, excessive harvesting of turtle eggs, disruption of nesting sites, and other land development activities. Figure 10: Dermochelys coriacea Figure 11: Eretmochelys imbricata Figure 12: Lepidochelys olivacea Figure 13: Careta careta Figure 14: Chelonia mydas Fishes The rich marine life includes 1400 species of fish associated with the reefs and near-coastal environment, 240 of which are endemic. The country’s coral reefs cover an area of approximately 44,907 square kilometers extending up to the 40-fathom isobaths. The largest concentration of reef areas is located in the Southwest portion of the country with some 60% of the corals lying on a shelf surrounding the island of Palawan. There are an estimated 462 species of Philippine corals, comprising 50% of the known number of corals in the world. About 12% of the Philippine coral species are endemic. The inland fish fauna of the Philippines contains approximately 255 species, representing 10% of the total marine and freshwater fishes of the archipelago. Sixty of these species are endemic to the country and about 70% are marine-associated, that is to say, migratory forms, freshwater members of marine families, or euryhaline sporadic visitors to freshwater. Seashells The Country has the greatest variety of seashells in the indo-pacific region. Of the 13 most valuable seashells in the world, three are found in the Philippines. The mollusks of commercial value found in the Philippines are the Pelecypods or bivalves, mussels, oysters, cephalopods, and numerous commercial seashells. There are about 1,100 species of bivalves are widely distributed within the country’s coastal waters. Some of these are of high economic value as food. Of the mussels, there are 27 species found in the country but only two species are being utilized for food, namely, green mussel or “tahong” and brown mussel. There are about 19 extant species of oysters but only four species are raised commercially in the country. Cephalopods such as squid, cuttlefish, nautilus, and octopus have high economic value as well. Crustaceans About 15,000 species of crustaceans have been recorded in the Philippines, but only a few are of high economic value as food. Crustaceans constitute a large group of arthropods to which crabs, shrimps, lobsters, barnacles, and a vast multitude of less familiar forms belong. They are represented by about 25, 000 known species which range from microscopic to large one of several meters in size. Zooplankton The three most important groups of zooplankton have been identified in the country, namely: Rotifera, Cladocera, and Copepoda. A total of 125 species are reportedly found in the Philippines. These are sub-divided into Rotifers (61 species), Cladocerans (49 species), and Copepods (15 species). Zooplanktons are important in that they serve as the food of other marine organisms. Micro-organisms Not much is known about the lower forms of life in the Philippines. The dearth of information, however, should not prevent us from designing measures for their conversation. Bacteria, fungi, and lichens, including the floating unicellular organisms in the aquatic environment, do play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance. For one, micro-organisms in ecosystems are the main agents in the decomposition of organic matter which not only enrich the soil for optimum plant growth but are also inseparably linked with the food chain and energy chain, symbiotic and allelopathic relationship, and other processes obtained in the ecosystem. Microorganisms are also sources of extracts that are used in the production of food, drugs, pesticides, and other industrial products. Biodiversity “Hotspots” Q8: What is Biodiversity “Hotspots”? There are presently 18 countries in the world that are considered megadiverse countries. The megadiverse countries hold 2/3 of the world’s biological resources. A megadiverse country has a high number of endemic species (more than 5,000 at least). The Philippines is considered one of the mega-diverse countries, the second smallest only to Ecuador and with the highest number of endemic vertebrate species per 1,000 square kilometers in the world. A biodiversity hotspot is a place where there is a high number of endemic species present that are facing the possibility of extinction. In some cases, it is characterized by a rapid loss of the original forest cover resulting in less than 25% of the original forest remaining. The Philippines has considered the hottest hotspot it has less than 7% of the original forest cover. With the rapid loss of its forest and given the high number of endemic threatened species, the Philippines are the hottest of the global terrestrial and marine hotspots. SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Q9: How is biological diversity significant to human survival? Our Food Dependence on Biodiversity The following information will give you an idea of the role of plants and animals as a food source of people: 1. Only seven (7) species provide 75% of human nutrition, namely: wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley, sweet potato, and cassava. 2. Roughly 20% of the protein requirements of humans in developing countries are provided by animals. 3. About 55% of the protein requirement of humans in a developed country is provided by animals. 4. Only 5,000 out of 75,000 edible plants species on earth have been used for food by humans. 5. Humans depend on three (3) plant species for 60% of their calories requirement and 56% of their protein  requirement. 6. Temperate zone plant provides about ten (10) fruit species while the tropical rainforests supply almost 200, and over 3,000 species are available. Our Medical Dependence on Biodiversity The following are a few proofs of the medicinal value of plants to people: 1. Less than one (1) percent of tropical plant has been screened for medical uses. 2. Only 5,000 species of higher plants have been studied as potential medicine sources. 3. Some 119 pure chemical substances are extracted from higher plants which are used in medicines worldwide. 4. Some 40% of all prescription drugs used in industrialized countries are derived from plant and animal species. 5. Amazonians Indians use 1,300 plant species as medicine. 6. Traditional healers in Southeast Asia use 6,500 plant species as medicine. 7. About 80% of people in developing countries rely on traditional medicine. 8. At least 68 common plants in the Philippines are being used as medicine. 9. About 3,000 plants, of which 70% are found in tropical rainforests, have been identified by the US National Cancer Institute as having anti-Cancer properties. 10. One (1) out of ten (10) plant species is believed by scientists to contain compounds with ingredients that are active against the counter. 11. Each year all prescription and non-prescription drugs containing active ingredients derived from plants are worth $40 billion. Our Industrial Dependence on Biodiversity Below are but a few data that support the claim of the industrial/commercial importance of forests and some plant products: 1. Due to rapid depletion, Philippine forests now contribute only 1.7% to the Gross National Product (GNP). 2. About 40 million tons of bananas are consumed by humans each year. 3. Humans consume 1.3 million tons of mangoes and 1.5 million tons of papayas each year. 4. “Nontimber forest products” such as rattan, fruits, nuts, and spices are worth $10 billion each year. 5. At least 2100 plants are reported to have pest-controlling property powerful enough to be commercially developed. BIODIVERSITY DEGRADATION AND LOSS Q10: What are the major causes of biodiversity degradation and loss in the country? According to the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) of DENR, the following are the major causes and/or threats involving habitat destruction, overexploitation of resources, and biological, chemical, and environmental pollution which contribute to biodiversity degradation and loss in the country: 1. Logging. It takes many years to replace trees lost through cutting. A single but fast-growing tree takes about 35 years to grow from seedling to its full height, while other types of trees require many more years. Logging companies and individual loggers cut not only one or two trees, but a big number of trees over large areas. This single activity upsets the balance of the forest ecosystem. When the rain comes, there are no more large roots to absorb the water. Soil erosion, landslides, and floods occur affecting the people within and near the denuded forests; and when forests are cleared, nearby areas may experience drought. Nowadays, some places which suffered from logging operations are already heavily affected by drought. 2. Fire. Trees easily catch fire during the dry season. Fires may start naturally from lightning but it can also be caused by people when they throw cigarette butts in the forest or when they engage in kaingin farming. Fires destroy the forest land, and it takes a very long time, if ever, for the forest and wildlife to recover. 3. 4. Industrial Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishery. Modern plant breeding programs in agriculture to attain high productivity of selected but fewer agricultural crops have resulted in the decline of biodiversity which has been maintained in the past at a high level using traditional agriculture. Similarly, forest rehabilitation and reforestation programs are focused on fast-growing or high-yielding tree species, resulting in monoculture and much-simplified forest structure. In the current approaches in agriculture and forestry, plant species require more fertilizers, pesticides, and water to maximize production and profits over a short period, thus, compounding further the stress and demand on the environment and the biological systems. In industrial fishery, the development of “blanket fishing” due to the large global market has led to the enormous harvest of both target and non-target species including the incidental catch of marine turtles, mammals, and birds. 5. Illegal Fishing Practices. Fishing with the use of electricity, dynamite, and cyanide will not only kill fish but also damage the water ecosystems. Even the coral reefs, the homes, and nurseries of the many different fishes are also destroyed. In the long run, this results in low fish catch. 6. Kaingin Slash-and-Burn Agriculture. Where log roads have been established and the commercial trees cut, many landless people are tempted to move into the remaining forests. Here they clear the forest by slash and burn to grow cabbage, banana, camote, and other vegetables. When the soil of the forest is no longer rich in nutrients, they again clear new areas. The kaingin plots often end as bare grassland where nothing but grass can grow. Bringing the depleted area back to the forest or for farming is very difficult. 7. Mining. Mining in protected areas is illegal because it requires the clearing of large areas of forest to make space for digging the minerals under the ground. Some minerals are harmful and can make us sick. Waste from mining operations can pollute fishing waters and contaminate our drinking water. When this happens, both nature and we suffer. 8. Charcoal Production. Cutting trees to make charcoal for sale is popular, and the demand for this fuel is high. More and more people go into the charcoal business and cut, in particular, the mangrove trees. This activity is harmful because mangrove provides food, shelter, and protection to various marine lives such as fishes and crocodiles. It also serves as nurseries for fish. Consequently, there is a need to look into alternatives to charcoal making. 9. Habitation by people. The presence of people in protected areas, no matter how good they are, has impacts on the environment. People want to clear forests to build their homes and grow their food. Hence, there is a need to discuss the number of people that can stay inside a protected area. In protected areas like the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, there are some very good areas suitable for farming, but the environment is very sensitive and easily destroyed. That is why we cannot have the same kind of activities and large-scale development as outside the Park. For instance, mining activities open up large forest areas and require cars to transport their products. Cars require many roads. When roads are constructed, many new people will arrive to share the clean water and forest. But they will need to cut more trees; and, together, with the wastewater generated by mining companies, the rivers will be polluted; and fishes die together with the many different plants and other animals, which may become extinct locally. 10. Squatting in a Protected Area. A forest is public land and cannot be privately owned. However, families that have lived inside the forest for at least five years before it was declared a protected area are allowed to use and enjoy the resources of the land. They should follow, however, the rules that are set up for the protected are before they are given permits by the PAWB to use the land. Unfortunately, there are still people who fake documents so that they can use the protected area for their own business and illegal activities. 11. Increasing Human Population. As a result of the increasing human population, many ecosystems are currently under stress because of overexploitation of renewable, but, most especially nonrenewable, resources. 12. Chemical or environmental pollution. Such as chemical waste, mine tailings, hazardous waste, factory discharge, agricultural and pesticide runoffs, and household waste. 13. Biological pollution. Such as the introduction of new species especially of foreign species that have no natural enemies or alien-invasive species. 14. Lack of Knowledge of the Value of Biodiversity. Most decision-makers do not fully appreciate the value of biodiversity and, thus, fail to incorporate them in developing policies. This results in no accounting of the scientific, economic, social, and ethical values of biodiversity. Likewise, most if not all development projects do not adequately address the needs of local communities which depend  directly on biological resources. Moreover, the majority of the general public remains reluctant to adopt policies that reduce excessive resource utilization. 15. Fragmented, Centralized and Weak Legal Institutional Systems. Biodiversity conservation requires a cross-sectoral rather than a fragmented sectoral approach to promote sustainable development. Government activity tends to be overcentralized and which discourages the participation of local communities. NGOs and people’s organizations (Pos) in both the planning and implementation stages of a developmental project would fail in its effort towards biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. Likewise, agencies and organizations charged with nature conservation that are fragmented, overlapping, and incompetent would most likely face major problems in the implementation of their projects. IMPACTS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS Q11: What are the negative effects of biodiversity loss? “Everything in this world is connected to everything else”. This principle is best exemplified by the concept of an ecosystem where living and nonliving things interact. The harm that we cause to nature because of the activity discussed in the proceeding section will backfire on us. In the end, we may suffer if we do not respect the way nature and its system works. Here is how: 1. Poverty. There is a limit to the use of our natural resources. If we do not replace what we take from nature, if we do not give nature a chance to reproduce and grow again, there may not be enough resources left for the coming generations. There are already increasing problems with fish and shellfish stock depletion as well as forest and coral reef destruction. Poverty is caused by the unequal distribution of society’s wealth and resources (e.g., land) and the rapid increase in the human population. Overconsumption of goods leads to resource depletion which, in turn, aggravates poverty. When resources are depleted, the ability of the poor to meet their needs is very much lessened. Hence, many impoverished people are pressured to survive on what is available in the public forest land. However, with few forests left, wood, paper, medicine, food, and other forest products will become scarce and expensive. With no forest, many people will lose their means of livelihood. Others will lose their jobs because businesses cannot continue to operate with the shortage of raw materials and high labor costs. Worse, with even more people around, less and resources become available. Consequently, people may starve as what happened in countries like North Korea and India. 2. Nature Imbalance. Upsetting the balance of nature leads to climate change-as evidenced by the almost unbearable heat during the dry season or the increasing occurrence of typhoons during the dry season or the increasing occurrence of typhoons during the rainy season (oftentimes causing mudslides and flashfloods). A local case to illustrate this is the tragedy in Ormoc, Leyte, where thousands of people were killed during a storm. Ormoc once had a thick forest that helped prevent the sudden rush of water during heavy rains. Denudation of its forests by logging resulted in a flashflood during the storm, leading to the deaths of thousands of people. 3. Diseases. Biodiversity loss could lead to the spread of diseases. To illustrate, frogs and birds eat mosquitos, flies, and other harmful insects which could carry diseases such as malaria and dengue. If we were to lose all the wild birds and frogs like when we destroy their forest homes or the ponds where they stay several disease-carrying insects will rise. We can expect the spread of diseases like malaria. In addition, the loss of forests can lead to the scarcity of medicines that come from certain plants in that place. 4. Poor Water Quality and Water Shortage. Eroded soil, oil, fertilizers, and sewage pollute sources of drinking water. This happens when trees are cut and forests are turned into high-value crop plantations and industrial zones. The presence of trees allows water to trickle down to underground water basins where it is stored. This gives us enough supply of water even during the dry season. But when we cut down trees, especially those near dams and along watersheds, we can expect a shortage of water in the dry season. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION: THE MANAGEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY Every life form warrants respect independently of its worth to people. Human development should not threaten the integrity of nature to the survival of other species. People should treat all creatures decently, and protect them from cruelty, avoidable suffering, and unnecessary killing. Q12: What is the goal of biodiversity management? The goal of biodiversity management is to strike the optimal balance between conserving the diversity of nature and advancing human sustainable living. Biodiversity management is the human effort to plant and implement a set of approaches to: 1. Protect and sustainably use biodiversity and biological resources, and ensure adequate sharing of benefits therefrom; 2. Develop the human, financial, infrastructural, and institutional capacity to address these objectives; and 3. Established the institutional arrangements necessary to foster the required coy private and public separation and action by private and public sector interests. Q13: What are the compelling reasons for biodiversity conservation? Biodiversity should be conserved for its associated material, social, cultural, spiritual, and ecosystem values. It includes the full range of management activities, from the preservation of species, their genetic traits, and the array of habitats and landscapes, through the restoration of ecosystems and the harvesting of plant, animal, and microbial resources for human needs, to the generation and distribution of benefits. Biodiversity conservation is necessary for the sustenance of life support systems on Earth. It also contributes to environmental stability while providing for the present and future generations in terms of biological resources. Q14: What are the approaches to biodiversity management? To give you a total picture of biodiversity conservation, the approaches and tools for conserving biological diversity are summarized below and discussed in subsequent sections. 1. In-situ approaches a. Establishment of protected areas b. Wildlife management c. Buffer zone management d. Agriculture biodiversity 2. Ex-situ approaches a. Botanical and zoological gardens b. Natural museums c. Seed banks/ Gene banks 3. Restoration and rehabilitation approaches a. Reconstruction of degraded natural/ semi-natural ecosystems b. Repair of ecosystem processes 4. Major land-use approaches Management of major land-use sectors (agriculture, fisheries, forestry, urban) to incorporate protection, sustainable use, and equity objectives 5. Policy and institutional approaches a. Regulation through zoning b. Economic incentives Q15: What does “in situ conservation” mean?  In situ conservation is the maintenance of plant and animal genetic material in their natural habitat. The aim of in situ conservation is to allow the population to maintain itself within the community of which it forms a part and in the environment to which it is adapted so that it has the potential for continued evolution. Protected areas are among the most valuable in situ conservation tools and cost-effective means for preserving genes, species, and habitats and for maintaining various ecological processes of importance to humanity. They are set aside to conserve species that cannot be preserved ex-situ as well as their wild crop relatives. The protected areas system maintains species diversity by protecting the range of different community types and by allowing for changes in species distributions. They do this by (1) protecting the diversity of physical environments, (2) containing a range of environments to allow organisms to adjust their local distribution in response to climate change, and (3) by being linked to the corridors of natural and modified environments that allow species to change their continental distributions. Q16: What does “ex-situ conservation” mean? Ex-situ conservation is the off-site conservation of the maintenance of wild or domesticated materials in botanical gardens, game farms, captive breeding programs in zoos, orchards, seeds collections, or laboratories and gene banks. Its purpose is to provide protective custody. Ex-situ conservation programs supplement in situ conservation by providing for the long-term storage, analysis, testing, and propagation of threatened and rare species of plants and animals and their propagules. They are particularly important for wildlife species whose populations are highly reduced in numbers, serving as a backup to in situ conservation as a source of material for reintroduction, for research and education, and as a major repository of genetic material for future breeding programs of domestic species. PROTECTION OF BIODIVERSITY-SIGNIFICANT SPECIES To ensure ecological sustainability and the perpetuation of biodiversity-significant species legislation has been passed to give ample protection to our native, endemic, vulnerable, threatened and critically endangered species. This is in line with the government’s commitment to protecting the environment to ensure an economically and ecologically sustainable future, following the constitutional mandate of the State to protect and advance the right of its people to “a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.” How are our biodiversity-significant species legally protected? RA 9147 known as the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act aim to protect wildlife species and other habitats, (2) regulate the collection and trade of wildlife, (3) pursue, with due regard to the national interest, the Philippine commitment to international conventions, protection of wildlife and their habitats and (4) initiate or support scientific studies on the conservation of biological diversity. The provision of this Act shall be enforceable for all wildlife species found in all areas of the country, including critical habitats and protected areas under the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act. Exotic species, or species that do not naturally occur in the country, are also covered by this Act. All designated critical habitats shall be protected, in coordination with the local government units and other concerned groups, from any form of exploitation or destruction which may be detrimental to the survival of species dependent upon these areas.  The introduction, reintroduction, or restocking of endemic and indigenous wildlife shall be allowed only for population enhancement of recovery. Any introduction shall be subject to a scientific study. The act also prohibits the introduction of exotic species into protected areas and critical habitats. If and when the introduction is allowed, it shall be subjected to environmental impact assessment and informed consent from local stakeholders. Conservation breeding or propagation of threatened species shall be encouraged to enhance its population in its natural habitat. Breeding shall be done simultaneously with the rehabilitation and protection of the habitat where the captive-bred or propagated species shall be released or reintroduced. When economically important species become threatened, collection shall be limited to scientific, educational, or breeding purposes. The Act makes it unlawful for any person to undertake the following: 1. Killing and destroying wildlife species, except when it’s done as part of the religious rituals of established tribal groups or indigenous cultural communities when the wildlife is afflicted with an incurable communicable disease, when it is deemed necessary to put an end to the misery suffered by the wildlife, or when it is done to prevent imminent danger to the life or limb of a human being; when the wildlife is killed or destroyed after it has been used in authorized research or experiments; 2. Inflicting injury which cripples and/or impairs the reproductive system of wildlife species; 3. Effecting of any following acts in critical habitats: dumping of waste products detrimental to wildlife; squatting or otherwise occupying any portion of the critical habitat; mineral exploration and/or extraction; burning; logging; and quarrying; 4. Introduction, reintroduction, or restocking of wildlife resources; 5. Trading of wildlife; 6. Collecting, hunting, or possessing wildlife, their by-products, and derivatives; 7. Gathering or destroying active nests, nest trees, host plants, and the like; 8. Maltreating and/or inflicting other injuries not covered by the preceding paragraph; and 9. Transporting of wildlife. For any person who undertakes these illegal acts, stiff penalties and fines are matted out. Imprisonment of as much as 12 years and a fine of 1 million pesos shall be imposed, if inflicted or undertaken against species listed as critical. Q26: What is the Wildlife Management Fund? A Wildlife Management Fund to be derived from the fines imposed and damages awarded, fees, charges, donations, endowments, administrative fees, or grants shall be administered by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources as a special account in the National Treasury. It will be used primarily to finance rehabilitation or restoration of habitats due to violations of this Act. The fund will also support scientific research, enforcement, and monitoring activities, as well as the enhancement of capabilities of relevant agencies. References Guzman, R.S., Binoya, C.S., Guzman, R.Z., Alberto, A.M., Cordovilla, A.M., Joaquin, C.C., Basug, E.D., Galang, A.P., & Yangco, R.T. (2010). Student Handbook: Modules on environment. Vibal Publishing House, Inc.