Chapter 5 env 100(1).pptx

CHAPTER 5: INTERRELATED SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES: Interactions: Environments and Organisms 5.1 Ecological Concepts Ecology is the study of ways organisms interact with each other and with their nonliving surroundings. Environment means everything that affects an organism during its lifetime. Abiotic fa...

CHAPTER 5: INTERRELATED SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES: Interactions: Environments and Organisms 5.1 Ecological Concepts Ecology is the study of ways organisms interact with each other and with their nonliving surroundings. Environment means everything that affects an organism during its lifetime. Abiotic factors: Nonliving things that influence an organism, such as energy, nonliving matter, living space, and ecological processes. Biotic factors: All forms of life with which the organism interacts. 2 Levels of Organization in Ecology 3 Limiting Factors Limiting factors are any factors whose shortage or absence restricts species success. Scarcity of water or specific nutrients (plants). Climate, availability of a specific food (animals). Range of tolerance indicates a range of conditions in which an organism can survive. Some species have a broad range of tolerance, while others have a narrow range of tolerance. 4 Temperature Is a Limiting Factor 5 Habitat and Niche The habitat of an organism is the space in which an organism lives; it is defined by the biological requirements of each particular organism. Usually highlighted by prominent physical or biological features. The niche of an organism is the functional role (profession) the organism has in its surroundings. This term includes all the ways an organism affects the organisms with which it interacts as well as how it modifies its physical surroundings. 6 Moss Habitat 7 Habitat and Niche The Ecological Niche of a Beaver The Niche of a Dandelion 8 Keystone Species A keystone species plays a critical role in the maintenance of specific ecosystems. When bison are present in American tall grass prairie ecosystems, they increase the biodiversity of the site. Smaller plant species normally shaded by the tall grasses are allowed to be successful. Bison wallows retain many species of plants that typically live in disturbed areas. Their feeding patterns affect the extent and impact of fire. Pisaster ochrace us: 9 http://www.marine.gov/ DNA, Genes, Traits Genes, Populations, and Species Genes are distinct pieces of DNA that determine the characteristics an individual displays. A population includes all organisms of the same kind found within a specific geographic region. A population contains more kinds of genes than any single individual within the population. A species is a population of all the organisms potentially capable of reproducing naturally among themselves and having offspring that also reproduce. 11 The Role of Natural Selection and Evolution Theory of Natural Selection Theory of Evolution 5.2 The Role of Natural Selection and Evolution Natural selection is the process that determines which individuals within a species will reproduce and pass their genes to the next generation. The changes seen in the genes and characteristics displayed by successive generations of a population of organisms over time is known as evolution. 13 Natural Selection 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Individuals within a species show genetically determined variation. Organisms within a species typically produce more offspring than are needed to replace the parents when they die. Most of the offspring die. The excess number of individuals results in a shortage of specific resources. Due to individual variation, some individuals have a greater chance of obtaining needed resources and therefore have a greater likelihood of surviving and reproducing than others. As time passes, the percentage of individuals showing favorable variations will increase while the percentage showing unfavorable variations Change Resulting from Natural Selection 15 Natural Selection Over Time Evolutionary Patterns Speciation is the production of new species from previously existing species. Extinction is the loss of an entire species. Coevolution is the concept that two or more species can reciprocally influence the evolutionary direction of the other. 19 Evolutionary Patterns Speciation It is thought to occur as a result of a species dividing into two isolated subpopulations. Diane Dodd’s experiments Evolutionary Patterns Extinction Of the estimated 500 million species believed to have ever existed on Earth, 98-99% have gone extinct. Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unlivable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Some of the Local Species at Risk Arabian Tahr Houbara Arabian Leopard Arabian Oryx (extirpated from Oman — being reintroduced to help recover!!) Ghaf tree White-collared Green Kingfisher (bird) Turtles Hawksbill Arabian Turtles Ostrich (extinct subspecies) Evolutionary Patterns Coevolution Grazing animals and grass species. Coevolution can occur at multiple levels of biology: it can be as microscopic as correlated mutations between amino acids in a protein, or as macroscopic as co-varying traits between different species in an environment.  Coevolution is likely to happen when different species have close ecological interactions with one another.  Each party in a coevolutionary relationship exerts selective pressures on the other, thereby affecting each others' evolution. Coevolution 5.3 Kinds of Organism Interactions Predation is a kind of interaction in which one animal kills/eats another. Predator benefits from food. Prey adaptation is manifested in a higher ◦ Predation reproduction rate.  Predator— organism hunting  Prey—organism attacked 25 Competition Competition is a kind of interaction in which two organisms strive to obtain the same limited resource. Intraspecific competition is competition between members of same species. Interspecific competition is competition between members of different species. 26 Competition The competitive exclusion principle holds that no two species can occupy the same ecological niche in the same place at the same time. Less-fit species must evolve into a slightly different niche. 27 Competitive Exclusion Principle Warblers Each from the NE USA species has it’s own unique niche Niche Specialization Symbiotic Relationships Symbiosis is a close, long-lasting, physical relationship between two different species. At least one species derives benefit from the interaction. There are three categories of symbiotic relationships: Parasitism Commensalism Mutualism 29 Symbiotic Relationships Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism (parasite) lives in or on another organism (host), from which it derives nourishment. Ectoparasites Fleas, live on the host’s surface. lice, molds, mildews Endoparasites Tapeworms, live inside the body of the host. malaria parasites, bacteria, fungi 30 Symbiotic Relationships xamples of symbiotic relationships Parasitism 32 Symbiotic Relationships Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism benefits while the other is not affected. Remoras and sharks Mutualism is a relationship in which both species benefit. The relationship is obligatory in many cases, as neither can exist without the other. Mycorrhizae 33 Commensalism 34 Mutualism Root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria Oxpeckers removing parasites 35 5.4 Community and Ecosystem Interactions A community is an assemblage of all interacting species of organisms in an area. An ecosystem is a defined space in which interactions take place between a community, with all its complex interrelationships, and the physical environment. 36 Major Roles of Organisms in Ecosystems Ecologists have divided organisms’ roles in ecosystems into three broad categories: Producers: Organisms that are able to use sources of energy to make complex organic molecules from simple inorganic substances in their environment. Consumers are organisms that require organic matter as a source of food. Decomposers are organisms that use nonliving organic matter as a source of energy and raw materials to build their bodies. 37 Major Roles of Organisms in Ecosystems Consumers can be further divided into categories based on the things they eat and the way they obtain food. Primary consumers, or herbivores, eat plants as a source of food. Secondary consumers, or carnivores, are animals that eat other animals. Omnivores consume both plants and animals. Energy Flow Through Ecosystems Each step in the flow of energy through an ecosystem is known as a trophic level. As energy moves from one trophic level to the next, most of the useful energy (90%) is lost as heat (second law of thermodynamics). Because it is difficult to measure the amount of energy contained in each trophic level, biomass (weight of living material) is often used as a proxy. 39 Food Chains and Food Webs A food chain is a series of organisms occupying different trophic levels through which energy passes as a result of one organism consuming another. A food web is a series of multiple, overlapping food chains. 40 A Food Webs single predator can have multiple prey species at the same time. Nutrient Cycles in Ecosystems— Biogeochemical Cycles Organisms are composed of molecules and atoms that are cycled between living and non-living portions of an ecosystem. Biogeochemical Cycles— Carbon Cycle 1. Plants use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis to produce sugars. Oxygen is produced as a byproduct. 2. Herbivores eat plants, break down the complex organic molecules into simpler molecular building blocks, and incorporate those molecules into their structure. Respiration produces CO2 and water and releases those compounds back into the atmosphere. 43 Biogeochemical Cycles— Carbon Cycle 3. The decay process of decomposers involves respiration and therefore recycles naturally occurring organic molecules. 4. Carbon sinks are processes or situations that remove atoms from active, short-term nutrient cycles, such as sediments, oceans, and bodies of plants. 44 Carbon Cycle 45 Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle Burning fossil fuels takes carbon atoms that were removed temporarily from the active, short-term carbon cycle and reintroduces them into the active cycle. Converting forests (long-term carbon storage) to agricultural land (short-term carbon storage) has increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 46 Nitrogen Cycle The nitrogen cycle involves the cycling of nitrogen atoms between abiotic and biotic ecosystem components. Producers Must are unable to use atmospheric N. get nitrate (–NO3) or ammonia (NH3.) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen gas N2 into ammonia. Decomposers also break down nitrogen-containing molecules, releasing ammonia. Nitrifying bacteria are able to convert ammonia to nitrite, which can be converted to nitrate. Denitrifying bacteria are able (under anaerobic conditions) to covert nitrite to nitrogen gas (N2) which is ultimately released into the atmosphere. The primary sink for nitrogen is the atmosphere. 47 Nitrogen Cycle 48 Human Alteration of the Nitrogen Cycle If too much nitrogen or phosphorus is applied as fertilizer, or if it is applied at the wrong time, much of the fertilizer is carried into aquatic ecosystems. The presence of these nutrients increases the growth rate of bacteria, algae, and aquatic plants. Toxic algae can kill fish and poison humans. An increase in the number of plants and algae results in lowered oxygen concentrations, creating “dead zones.” 49 Phosphorus Cycle Phosphorus is not present in the atmosphere as a gas. The ultimate source of phosphorus atoms is rock. Phosphorus compounds are released by erosion and become dissolved in water. Plants use phosphorus to construct necessary molecules. Animals gain necessary phosphorus when they consume plants or other animals. Decomposers recycle phosphorus compounds back into the soil. 50 Phosphorus Cycle 51 Human Impact on Nutrient Cycles Burning of fossil fuels releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Fossil fuel burning also increases the amount of nitrogen available to plants. Converting forests (long-term carbon storage) to agricultural land (short-term carbon storage) has increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. If too much nitrogen or phosphorus is applied as fertilizer, or if it is applied at the wrong time, much of the fertilizer is carried into aquatic ecosystems. The presence of these nutrients increases the growth rate of bacteria, algae, and aquatic plants.