chapter 5 and 7.docx

Here are the answers to the questions visible in the image: 1\. What does the transport layer do? The Transport Layer (Layer 4 of the OSI model) is responsible for ensuring reliable data transfer between two devices. It provides functions such as segmentation, flow control, error correction, and r...

Here are the answers to the questions visible in the image: 1\. What does the transport layer do? The Transport Layer (Layer 4 of the OSI model) is responsible for ensuring reliable data transfer between two devices. It provides functions such as segmentation, flow control, error correction, and retransmission of lost packets. Protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) operate at this layer. 2\. What does the network layer do? The Network Layer (Layer 3 of the OSI model) handles the routing of data across multiple networks. It is responsible for logical addressing, such as IP addresses, and for determining the best path for data to reach its destination. Protocols like IP (Internet Protocol) work at this layer. 3\. What are the parts of TCP/IP and what do they do? Who is the primary user of TCP/IP? TCP/IP has four layers: Application Layer: Provides protocols for specific data communication services (e.g., HTTP, FTP). Transport Layer: Ensures reliable or unreliable delivery via TCP or UDP. Internet Layer: Handles logical addressing and routing (e.g., IP). Link Layer: Manages the physical transmission of data over the network. The primary users of TCP/IP are internet-connected devices and the protocol is the backbone of the Internet. 4\. Compare and contrast the three types of addresses used in a network. Application Layer Address: Identifies an application or service (e.g., email or web service). Network Layer Address: The logical address used for routing (e.g., IP address). Data Link Layer Address: The physical (MAC) address used within a local network. 5\. How is TCP different from UDP? TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol that ensures data is delivered correctly, with error checking and retransmission. UDP is a connectionless, unreliable protocol that provides faster transmission but without guarantees of delivery or error checking. 6\. How does TCP establish a session? TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish a connection: 1\. SYN: The client sends a synchronization request. 2\. SYN-ACK: The server responds with an acknowledgment. 3\. ACK: The client sends a final acknowledgment, and the connection is established. 7\. What is a subnet and why do networks need them? A \*\*subnet\*\* is a smaller section of a larger network. Networks use subnets to: 1. \*\*Improve speed\*\*: Less traffic in each subnet makes the network faster. 2. \*\*Increase security\*\*: You can control who accesses each subnet. 3. \*\*Manage IP addresses\*\*: Subnets help use IP addresses more efficiently. In short, subnets keep large networks organized and efficient 8\. What is a subnet mask? is a number that helps computers and devices know which part of an IP address refers to the network and which part refers to the device. It works like a filter to separate the network ID from the device ID. \#\#\# Example: - \*\*IP Address\*\*: 192.168.1.10 - \*\*Subnet Mask\*\*: 255.255.255.0 In this example, the first three sections (192.168.1) represent the network, and the last part (10) represents the device. \#\#\# Why It's Important: - It helps devices know whether another device is on the same network or a different one. - It organizes networks into smaller parts (subnets) for better efficiency and security. In simple terms, a subnet mask tells your device which network it belongs to and helps with communication in the network 9\. How does dynamic addressing work? Dynamic addressing assigns IP addresses automatically using protocols like DHCP. This allows devices to join a network without manual configuration. 10\. What benefits and problems does dynamic addressing provide? Benefits: Simplifies IP management, reduces manual errors, allows devices to join networks easily. Problems: Potential for address conflicts, and devices might get a new address after rebooting. 11\. What is address resolution? Address resolution is the process of mapping a logical address (IP address) to a physical address (MAC address) using protocols like ARP. 12\. How does TCP/IP perform address resolution from URLs into network layer addresses? When a URL is entered, DNS (Domain Name System) resolves the domain name into an IP address, allowing communication with the target server. When you type a website address (URL) like \`www.google.com\`, your computer needs to find its \*\*IP address\*\* (like a phone number for computers) to connect to the website. It does this using a system called \*\*DNS\*\* (Domain Name System): 1. Your computer asks a DNS server, \"What's the IP address for this website?\" 2. The DNS server replies with the IP address (e.g., \`172.217.0.46\`). 3. Your computer uses this IP address to connect to the website. In simple terms, DNS is like a phone book for the internet, turning website names into IP addresses so computers can find and talk to each other. 13\. How does TCP/IP perform address resolution from IP addresses into data link layer addresses? ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to map IP addresses to MAC addresses in a local network. 14\. What is routing? Routing is the process of determining the path that data takes to travel across multiple networks to reach its destination. 15\. How does decentralized routing differ from centralized routing? Centralized Routing: One central node makes all routing decisions. Decentralized Routing: Each router makes its own decisions based on network topology and routing tables. Decentralized Routing\*\*: - Each router makes its own decisions about where to send data based on local information. - It's great for large networks because it can adapt to changes and doesn't rely on a single point of control. - \*\*Example\*\*: The internet. \*\*Centralized Routing\*\*: - A central controller decides where to send data for all routers in the network. - It's easier to manage but can cause problems if the central controller fails. - \*\*Example\*\*: Some small private networks. \#\#\# Summary: In simple terms, decentralized routing lets each router act independently, while centralized routing relies on one main controller to direct all traffic 16\. What are the differences between connectionless and connection-oriented messaging? Connectionless Messaging: Sends data without establishing a session (e.g., UDP). Connection-oriented Messaging: Establishes a session before sending data and ensures delivery (e.g., TCP). Here's a simple breakdown of \*\*connectionless\*\* and \*\*connection-oriented messaging\*\*: \#\#\# Connectionless Messaging: - \*\*No Connection Needed\*\*: You send data without setting up a connection first. - \*\*Faster\*\*: It's quicker because there's less preparation, but messages might get lost or arrive in the wrong order. - \*\*Example\*\*: \*\*UDP\*\* is used for things like online games or video streaming. \#\#\# Connection-Oriented Messaging: - \*\*Connection Required\*\*: You have to establish a connection before sending data. - \*\*More Reliable\*\*: It ensures that messages arrive in the correct order and checks for errors, but it's slower because of the extra setup. - \*\*Example\*\*: \*\*TCP\*\* is used for web browsing and downloading files. \#\#\# Summary: In short, connectionless messaging is fast but less reliable, while connection-oriented messaging is slower but ensures that data arrives correctly. 17\. What is a session? A \*\*session\*\* is a temporary connection between two devices that allows them to exchange data. This connection is managed by protocols like TCP, ensuring that the communication is organized and reliable. \-\-- If you have any other questions or need further clarification, feel free to ask! 18\. What is QoS routing and why is it useful? (Quality of Service Routing) is a way for networks to prioritize certain types of data to ensure important applications get the speed and reliability they need. \#\#\# Key Points: 1. \*\*Prioritizes Important Data\*\*: It gives higher priority to essential traffic (like video calls) over less important data (like downloads). 2. \*\*Ensures Smooth Performance\*\*: By managing bandwidth, it helps reduce delays and interruptions for critical applications. 3. \*\*Supports Different Needs\*\*: It allows different types of data (voice, video, and web browsing) to work well together on the same network. \#\#\# Why It's Useful: - \*\*Better Experience for Users\*\*: Important services run smoothly, leading to a better user experience. - \*\*Efficient Use of Network\*\*: It helps prevent network congestion and keeps everything running optimally. \#\#\# Summary: In simple terms, QoS routing helps networks make sure important data gets through quickly and reliably, improving the performance of critical applications. 19\. Compare and contrast unicast, broadcast, and multicast messages. Unicast: Data is sent to a single recipient. Broadcast: Data is sent to all devices on a network segment. Multicast: Data is sent to a specific group of devices. 20\. Explain how multicasting works. Multicasting involves sending a single data stream to multiple recipients who are members of a multicast group, rather than sending multiple separate streams. 21\. Explain how the client computer in Figure 5-16 (128.192.98.xx) would obtain the data link layer address of its subnet router. The client would use ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) to send a request to the subnet, asking for the MAC address of the device with the specified IP address (the subnet router). The router would reply with its MAC address. 22\. Why does HTTP use TCP and DNS use UDP? HTTP uses TCP for reliable communication since it needs to ensure that all data is transmitted accurately. DNS uses UDP because it is faster and most DNS queries are small, so they can be handled without the overhead of establishing a connection. \*Reliable Delivery\*\*: It needs to make sure all data (like web pages) arrives correctly and in order. - \*\*Connection\*\*: TCP sets up a connection between your device and the server, which helps transfer larger files smoothly. \*\*DNS uses UDP\*\* because: - \*\*Speed\*\*: DNS needs to quickly find IP addresses from website names, so it doesn\'t wait to establish a connection. - \*\*Less Overhead\*\*: UDP is simpler and faster since it doesn't check for errors or establish a connection. \#\#\# Summary: In simple terms, HTTP uses TCP for reliable and complete web page delivery, while DNS uses UDP for fast name-to-address lookups. 4o mini 23\. How does static routing differ from dynamic routing? When would you use static routing? When would you use dynamic routing? Static Routing: Routes are manually set and do not change. It's used in small networks or where the network topology does not change often. Dynamic Routing: Routes are updated automatically as the network topology changes, making it useful for larger, more dynamic networks. tatic Routing: - \*\*Manual Setup\*\*: Routes are set up by a person and don't change unless updated manually. - \*\*Best for Simple Networks\*\*: Great for small networks where things don't change much. - \*\*Reliable\*\*: Can be more dependable because the routes stay the same. \#\#\# When to Use Static Routing: - In small or simple networks where traffic patterns are predictable. - When you want full control over routing without frequent changes. \#\#\# Dynamic Routing: - \*\*Automatic Updates\*\*: Routes change automatically based on the current network conditions. - \*\*Better for Big Networks\*\*: Works well for larger networks where devices and routes frequently change. - \*\*More Complex\*\*: Uses more resources because routers communicate to keep routes updated. \#\#\# When to Use Dynamic Routing: - In large networks with many devices that change often. - When you want to make network management easier and let the system adjust routes automatically. \#\#\# Summary: In short, \*\*static routing\*\* is good for small, stable networks with fixed routes, while \*\*dynamic routing\*\* is better for large, changing networks that need automatic updates. 24\. What type of routing does a TCP/IP client use? What type of routing does a TCP/IP gateway use? Explain. TCP/IP Client: Uses unicast routing to send data to a specific recipient. TCP/IP Gateway: Uses routing protocols like OSPF or BGP to determine the best path for data to travel across networks. TCP/IP Client: - \*\*Unicast Routing\*\*: A TCP/IP client uses unicast routing to send data to a specific device (recipient) on the network. This means the data is sent directly from one device to another. - \*\*Example\*\*: When you send a message to a friend on a messaging app, your device uses unicast to send that message only to your friend\'s device. \#\#\# TCP/IP Gateway: - \*\*Routing Protocols\*\*: A TCP/IP gateway uses routing protocols like OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) or BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) to find the best path for data traveling between different networks. - \*\*How It Works\*\*: The gateway examines its routing table and the current network conditions to determine the most efficient route for data to reach its destination, even if it's on a different network. - \*\*Example\*\*: If you\'re accessing a website, the gateway will figure out the best path to send your request to the website\'s server, which may be far away on the internet. \#\#\# Summary: In simple terms, a \*\*TCP/IP client\*\* sends data directly to a specific device using unicast routing, while a \*\*TCP/IP gateway\*\* uses complex routing protocols to find the best way for data to travel across different networks. 4o mini 25\. What is the transmission efficiency of a 1,000-byte file sent in response to a Web request HTTP, TCP/IP, and Ethernet? Assuming 100 bytes of overhead and a 1,000-byte file:  26\. What is the transmission efficiency of a 5,000-byte file sent in response to a Web request HTTP, TCP/IP, and Ethernet? Assuming 100 bytes of overhead and a 5,000-byte file: \*File Size\*\*: You\'re sending a file that is \*\*1,000 bytes\*\*. 2. \*\*Overhead\*\*: This is extra data added by protocols to help with sending the file: - \*\*HTTP Overhead\*\*: About \*\*200 bytes\*\* (for headers). - \*\*TCP Overhead\*\*: About \*\*20 bytes\*\* (TCP header). - \*\*IP Overhead\*\*: About \*\*20 bytes\*\* (IP header). - \*\*Ethernet Overhead\*\*: - \*\*Header\*\*: 14 bytes - \*\*Trailer\*\*: 4 bytes - \*\*Total Overhead\*\*: - 200 + 20 + 20 + 14 + 4 = \*\*258 bytes\*\* 3. \*\*Total Data Sent\*\*: - This is the size of the file plus the overhead: - \*\*Total Data = 1,000 bytes (file) + 258 bytes (overhead) = 1,258 bytes\*\* 4. \*\*Transmission Efficiency\*\*: - This tells us how much of the data sent is the actual file: - \*\*Efficiency = (File Size / Total Data) × 100\*\* - \*\*Efficiency = (1,000 / 1,258) × 100 ≈ 79.5%\*\* \#\#\# Summary: - You send a \*\*1,000-byte file\*\*, but with all the extra data (overhead) added by the protocols, you end up sending \*\*1,258 bytes\*\* in total. - So, about \*\*79.5%\*\* of what you sent was the actual file, while the rest was extra information. 4o mini  27\. Describe the anatomy of a router. How does a router differ from a computer? A router consists of: CPU: Processes routing decisions. Memory: Stores routing tables and configuration data. Interfaces: For connecting to networks. Routers differ from computers because they are optimized for forwarding packets and running network protocols rather than general computing tasks. Here are the answers to all 31 questions based on the images provided: General Questions (1--21): 1\. Define local area network (LAN): A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that interconnects devices within a limited geographic area, such as a home, office, or campus, allowing them to communicate and share resources. 2\. Describe at least three types of servers: File Server: Stores and manages files for network users. Web Server: Delivers web pages and runs applications over the internet. Database Server: Manages and provides access to a database system. 3\. Describe the basic components of a wired LAN: NICs (Network Interface Cards): Enable devices to connect to the network. Cables (Ethernet, Fiber-Optic): Provide physical connections. Switches: Direct data between devices on the network. 4\. Describe the basic components of a wireless LAN: Access Points (APs): Enable wireless devices to connect. Wireless NICs: Allow devices to connect wirelessly. Routers: Direct data between wireless devices and external networks. 5\. What types of cables are commonly used in wired LANs? Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: Common in Ethernet LANs. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: Used in environments with interference. Fiber-Optic Cable: Used for high-speed and long-distance connections. 6\. Compare and contrast category 5 UTP, category 5e UTP, and category 5 STP: Category 5 UTP: Supports speeds up to 100 Mbps. Category 5e UTP: Supports speeds up to 1 Gbps, with better handling of interference. Category 5 STP: Shielded to reduce interference, used in noisy environments. 7\. What is a cable plan, and why would you want one? A cable plan is a detailed layout for installing network cables in a building. It ensures efficient cable management, reduces the risk of future issues, and allows for easier troubleshooting and scalability. 8\. What does a NOS do? What are the major software parts of a NOS? A Network Operating System (NOS) manages network resources and allows devices to communicate over a network. Key components include: File and Printer Sharing User Authentication Network Security Centralized Management 9\. How does wired Ethernet work? Wired Ethernet transmits data using physical cables (like UTP) and switches. Devices communicate by sending data packets to switches, which direct them to their intended destination. 10\. How does a logical topology differ from a physical topology? Physical Topology: The actual layout of network devices and cables. Logical Topology: How data flows through the network, regardless of physical layout. 11\. Briefly describe how CSMA/CD works: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) detects collisions in Ethernet networks. Devices check if the network is idle before sending data. If a collision occurs, devices stop, wait, and resend the data. 12\. Explain the terms 100Base-T, 1000Base-T, 10GbE, and 10/100/1000 Ethernet: 100Base-T: Ethernet supporting 100 Mbps. 1000Base-T: Ethernet supporting 1 Gbps. 10GbE: Ethernet supporting 10 Gbps. 10/100/1000 Ethernet: Supports speeds of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1 Gbps. 13\. How do Ethernet switches know where to send the frames they receive? Ethernet switches use MAC address tables to associate MAC addresses with specific ports. When a frame arrives, the switch looks up the destination MAC address and sends the frame to the correct port. 14\. Compare and contrast cut-through, store-and-forward, and fragment-free switching: Cut-through: Forwards data immediately after reading the destination MAC address. Store-and-forward: Reads and checks the entire frame for errors before forwarding. Fragment-free: Checks the first 64 bytes of a frame before forwarding (reduces errors). 15\. Compare and contrast the two types of antennas used in wireless LANs in terms of topology, media access control, and Ethernet frame: Omnidirectional Antennas: Broadcast signals in all directions; useful in open areas. Directional Antennas: Focus signals in one direction, used for longer-distance connections. 16\. How does Wi-Fi differ from shared Ethernet in terms of media access control? Wi-Fi uses CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) to avoid collisions by waiting for the network to be idle, whereas shared Ethernet uses CSMA/CD to detect and handle collisions after they occur. 17\. How does Wi-Fi handle media access control, error control, and frame format? Wi-Fi uses CSMA/CA for media access control, acknowledgments (ACKs) for error control, and a specific frame structure designed for wireless transmission, including headers and trailers for reliability. 18\. Explain how CSMA/CA DCF works: Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) is a basic method of Wi-Fi communication where devices listen to ensure the medium is free before transmitting data to avoid collisions. 19\. Explain how CSMA/CA PCF works: Point Coordination Function (PCF) is an optional mode in Wi-Fi that uses a centralized coordinator (typically the access point) to manage communication, ensuring collisions are avoided. 20\. Explain how association works in WLAN: Association is the process where a wireless device establishes a connection with an access point, allowing it to participate in the network. The device sends a request, and the AP responds with a confirmation. 21\. What are the best practice recommendations for WLAN design? Use adequate coverage planning to prevent dead zones. Ensure proper security protocols (e.g., WPA2) are implemented. Minimize interference by properly positioning access points and using the correct channels. Additional Questions (22--31): 22\. What are the best practice recommendations for WLAN design? Position access points for optimal coverage. Use high-security standards like WPA2. Ensure adequate bandwidth for the number of devices. 23\. What is a site survey, and why is it important? A site survey evaluates the physical environment where a WLAN will be installed to determine optimal placement of access points, avoid interference, and ensure adequate coverage. 24\. How do you decide how many APs are needed and where they should be placed for best performance? The number of APs and their placement is determined based on: Coverage requirements Expected number of users Environmental factors (e.g., walls, interference) Results from a site survey. 25\. How does the design of the data center differ from the design of the LANs intended to provide user access to the network? Data center design focuses on high availability, redundancy, and centralized server resources, while user-access LANs emphasize user connection and data-sharing among devices in a localized area. 26\. What three special-purpose devices might you find in a data center and what do they do? Firewalls: Protect the network from unauthorized access. Load Balancers: Distribute network traffic evenly across servers. Storage Area Network (SAN) Devices: Manage and provide high-speed access to storage resources. 27\. What is a bottleneck and how can you locate one? A bottleneck is a point in the network that limits overall performance due to limited capacity. It can be located by: Monitoring network traffic. Checking server load and response times. Analyzing network logs. 28\. Describe three ways to improve network performance on the server: Increase processing power (upgrade CPU, RAM). Optimize software for efficiency. Add more servers to distribute the load. 29\. Describe three ways to improve network performance on circuits: Increase bandwidth by upgrading cables (e.g., from UTP to fiber-optic). Use compression to reduce the size of transmitted data. Load balancing across multiple circuits. 30\. Many of the wired and wireless LANs share the same or similar components (e.g., error control). Why? Both wired and wireless LANs aim to ensure reliable data transmission, so they share common mechanisms like error control, addressing, and data routing to maintain network integrity. 31\. As WLANs become more powerful, what are the implications for networks of the future? Will wired LANs still be common, or will we eliminate wired offices? Wired LANs may still be used for specific tasks requiring high security and reliability, but WLANs will become increasingly common due to their flexibility, scalability, and ease of deployment in most environments. A list of rules used to permit or deny access to network resources based on specific IP addresses or protocols. ACLs are crucial for implementing security policies in networks. \[p. 134\] 2\. Acknowledgment (ACK): A signal sent by the receiver to the sender to confirm that a message or packet has been successfully received. \[p. 116\] 3\. Address Resolution: The process of mapping a network layer address (like an IP address) to a data link layer address (such as a MAC address). \[p. 125\] 4\. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): A protocol used to map an IP address to a MAC address in a local area network. \[p. 127\] 5\. Application Layer Address: Identifies an application or service within a host (such as a web service or email), often using port numbers to distinguish between multiple services on the same host. \[p. 119\] 6\. Authoritative Name Server: A DNS server that holds and provides definitive answers for queries about domain names within its zone of authority. \[p. 126\] 7\. ARP Cache: A temporary storage of recently resolved IP-to-MAC address mappings to reduce repeated ARP requests for the same addresses. \[p. 138\] 8\. Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ): An error control method in data communication that uses acknowledgments and timeouts to ensure reliable data transfer. When errors are detected, ARQ requests retransmission. \[p. 116\] 9\. Autonomous System: A collection of IP networks and routers under the control of a single organization that presents a unified routing policy to the internet. \[p. 130\] 10\. Auxiliary Port: A secondary input/output port on a device used for management and maintenance purposes, such as connecting a terminal or console. \[p. 133\] 11\. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): A path vector protocol used for routing between autonomous systems on the internet. BGP is responsible for the routing of data between different networks. \[p. 131\] 12\. Border Router: A router that connects an autonomous system to one or more external networks, such as the internet. It is responsible for managing traffic that enters and exits the network. \[p. 130\] 13\. Broadcast Message: A message that is sent to all devices within a specific network segment or domain. In contrast to unicast, it is not addressed to a single recipient. \[p. 122\] 14\. Centralized Routing: routing approach where all routing decisions are made by a single central node, instead of being distributed across the network. It simplifies management but may become a bottleneck if the central node fails 15\. Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS): The proprietary operating system used by Cisco devices such as routers and switches. It provides the interface for managing and configuring network devices. \[p. 133\] 16\. Classless Addressing: An IP addressing scheme that allows for variable-length subnet masking, making more efficient use of IP address space than traditional class-based addressing. \[p. 122\] 17\. Connectionless Messaging: A form of communication where data is sent without first establishing a dedicated connection between the sender and receiver. Examples include UDP, which does not guarantee delivery. \[p. 118\] 18\. Connection-oriented Messaging: A method of communication where a connection is established between sender and receiver before data is transferred, ensuring reliability and correct sequencing of messages (e.g., TCP). \[p. 116\] 19\. Console Port: A physical port used for direct access to manage and configure a network device, such as a router or switch, typically via a terminal interface. \[p. 133\] 20\. Continuous ARQ: An error control method that continuously transmits data, requiring acknowledgments for each frame. If an error is detected, only the erroneous frame is retransmitted. \[p. 117\] 21\. Data Link Layer Address: A hardware or physical address that uniquely identifies a device within a local network, such as a MAC address. \[p. 120\] 22\. Designated Router: A router elected in certain routing protocols, like OSPF, to minimize routing traffic by managing route exchanges within a network segment. \[p. 130\] 23\. Destination Port Address: An identifier used to direct data to a specific service or application on a device, often represented by a number (e.g., port 80 for HTTP). \[p. 114\] 24\. Distance Vector Dynamic Routing: A type of dynamic routing protocol where routers share information about the distance (in hops) to reach network destinations. Routing decisions are based on the distance to the destination. \[p. 129\] 25\. Domain Name Service (DNS): A hierarchical naming system that translates human-readable domain names into IP addresses, allowing users to access websites using easily remembered names rather than IP addresses. \[p. 125\] 26\. Dynamic Addressing: A method of automatically assigning IP addresses to devices on a network, typically using protocols like DHCP. \[p. 124\] 27\. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): A network protocol used to dynamically assign IP addresses and other network configuration parameters to devices, enabling them to communicate on a network. \[p. 125\] 28\. Dynamic Routing: A routing technique that automatically adjusts the paths data takes through a network based on current network conditions and topology changes. \[p. 129\] 29\. Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP): A Cisco-developed routing protocol that combines features of both distance-vector and link-state protocols, making it highly scalable and efficient for large networks. \[p. 132\] 30\. Exterior Routing Protocol: A routing protocol used to exchange routing information between different autonomous systems, such as BGP. \[p. 130\] 31\. Flow Control: A technique used in data communications to manage the rate at which data is transmitted between two devices, ensuring that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver. \[p. 117\] 32\. Gateway: A network device that connects two different networks, translating protocols between them and allowing communication between devices on different network types. \[p. 135\] 33\. Go-Back-N ARQ: An error control protocol where, if an error is detected in a transmitted frame, all subsequent frames are retransmitted, not just the erroneous one. \[p. 117\] 34\. Hop: A term used to describe the journey that data takes from one router to another on its way to its destination. Each hop refers to one leg of the journey. \[p. 129\] 35\. Interface: The point of interaction between two systems or devices, where data is exchanged. In networking, it often refers to the physical or logical connection between devices. \[p. 127\] 36\. Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP): A distance-vector routing protocol developed by Cisco for routing within an autonomous system. \[p. 132\] 37\. Internet Address Classes: The classification of IP addresses into categories (Class A, B, C, etc.) based on the size of the network. Classless addressing is more efficient and commonly used today. \[p. 121\] 38\. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): A protocol used to send error messages and operational information about IP network connections, commonly used in diagnostic tools like ping and traceroute. \[p. 131\] 39\. Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN): A global organization responsible for coordinating the assignment of IP addresses and the management of domain names, ensuring the stability and interoperability of the internet. \[p. 121\] 40\. Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): A communication protocol used to manage the membership of devices in multicast groups, allowing efficient transmission of data to multiple recipients. \[p. 133\] Let me know if you need further clarifications or more information on any of these terms! CH7: Here are the definitions for the key terms shown in the images from Chapter 7: Wired and Wireless Local Area Networks: 1\. Access Point (AP): A device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi or similar standards. It acts as a bridge between the wireless and wired portions of a network. \[p. 181\] 2\. Active Directory Service (ADS): A directory service by Microsoft used for Windows domain networks. It stores information about objects on the network and makes this information easily accessible to users and administrators. \[p. 183\] 3\. Association: The process by which a wireless device connects to a wireless access point in order to join a wireless LAN. \[p. 189\] 4\. Bottleneck: A point in the network where the performance is limited by the capacity or speed of a particular link or device, causing data flow to slow down. \[p. 202\] 5\. Bus Topology: A network topology in which all devices share a single communication line or bus. Data sent by one device is available to all other devices on the network. \[p. 184\] 6\. Cable Plan: A plan that details how and where network cables will be installed in a building or environment, ensuring optimal organization and performance. \[p. 195\] 7\. Cabling: The physical infrastructure used to connect network devices. Common types include Ethernet cables, fiber-optic cables, and coaxial cables. \[p. 195\] 8\. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA): A network protocol used in wireless LANs that prevents data collisions by having devices sense whether the channel is idle before transmitting. \[p. 189\] 9\. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD): A network protocol used in Ethernet networks where devices detect collisions and resend data after a random wait time. \[p. 187\] 10\. Channel: A specific frequency or band used for communication between devices in a wireless network. Channels help in dividing the spectrum to avoid interference. \[p. 180\] 11\. Clear to Send (CTS): A signal sent by an access point to a wireless device indicating that it is clear to begin transmission. This is part of CSMA/CA to avoid collisions. \[p. 190\] 12\. Collision Detection (CD): A feature in Ethernet networks (CSMA/CD) where a device detects if its data transmission has collided with another device's data, and then retransmits the data after a random delay. \[p. 187\] 13\. Collision Domain: A network segment where data packets can collide with one another when being sent simultaneously by two devices. This often occurs in shared Ethernet segments without a switch. \[p. 185\] 14\. Cut-through Switching: A method of switching where the switch begins forwarding the packet as soon as it reads the destination address, without waiting for the entire packet to be received. \[p. 186\] 15\. Directional Antenna: An antenna that focuses its signal in a specific direction, improving performance and range in that direction. Commonly used in long-distance wireless connections. \[p. 182\] 16\. Distributed Coordination Function (DCF): A protocol used in wireless networks to coordinate access to the wireless medium. It helps prevent collisions by using mechanisms such as CSMA/CA and RTS/CTS. \[p. 189\] 17\. Domain Controller: A server that responds to authentication requests and verifies users on a computer network in a Windows domain. \[p. 183\] 18\. Dual-band AP: An access point that can operate on two different frequency bands, typically 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, to provide better wireless coverage and performance. \[p. 191\] 19\. Ethernet: A widely used wired LAN technology that uses cables to connect devices and facilitates data exchange using protocols like CSMA/CD. \[p. 184\] 20\. Fiber-optic Cable: A high-speed data transmission medium that uses light to carry data. It is immune to electrical interference and capable of transmitting data over long distances. \[p. 179\] 21\. Forwarding Table: A table used by network devices (like switches or routers) to determine the next destination for incoming packets based on the destination address. \[p. 189\] 22\. Fragment-free Switching: A switching technique that stores the first 64 bytes of each frame before forwarding it. This reduces the risk of forwarding frames with collisions or errors. \[p. 187\] 23\. Frame: A data packet that includes the destination and source addresses and control information necessary for data transmission over a network. \[p. 184\] 24\. Hub: A basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a network. It broadcasts incoming data to all connected devices, without filtering or directing it. \[p. 180\] 25\. IEEE 802.3: The standard for Ethernet, which defines wired LAN technologies that use CSMA/CD and supports data transfer rates ranging from 10 Mbps to 100 Gbps. \[p. 184\] 26\. IEEE 802.11: The set of standards for wireless LANs (Wi-Fi). It defines the protocols for wireless communication and data exchange in wireless networks. \[p. 189\] 27\. Latency: The time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination across a network. Lower latency means faster communication. \[p. 186\] 28\. Layer 2 Switch: A switch that operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, making decisions based on MAC addresses. It forwards data within the same network. \[p. 180\] 29\. Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): A protocol used to access and manage directory services over a network, commonly used for authentication purposes. \[p. 183\] 30\. Load Balancer: A device that distributes incoming network traffic across multiple servers to ensure no single server is overwhelmed, improving performance and reliability. \[p. 198\] 31\. Local Topology: The arrangement or layout of devices, cables, and connections within a localized part of a network, such as a building or campus. \[p. 184\] 32\. Logical Topology: The conceptual representation of how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical layout. \[p. 184\] 33\. MAC Address Filtering: A security feature that allows only devices with specific MAC addresses to connect to a network. It restricts unauthorized access. \[p. 193\] 34\. Managed APs: Access points that are centrally managed by a wireless controller, which allows for easier configuration, management, and monitoring of multiple APs. \[p. 196\] 35\. Network-attached Storage (NAS): A device connected to a network that provides centralized storage for multiple users and devices, often used for file sharing and backups. \[p. 199\] 36\. Network Interface Card (NIC): A hardware component that allows a computer or other device to connect to a network, either wired (via Ethernet) or wireless (via Wi-Fi). \[p. 179\] 37\. Network Operating System (NOS): Software that manages network resources, user access, and security. It is essential for handling tasks like file sharing, printer access, and communication services. \[p. 183\] 38\. Network Profile: A set of settings and configurations that define how a device connects and interacts with a network, including security settings, network discovery, and sharing options. \[p. 184\] 39\. Network Segmentation: The practice of dividing a larger network into smaller, more manageable segments. This improves performance, security, and traffic management. \[p. 204\] 40\. Network Server: A dedicated computer that provides services such as file storage, email, and web hosting to other devices on a network. \[p. 183\] 41\. Omnidirectional Antenna: An antenna that radiates signal in all directions, commonly used in Wi-Fi networks to provide wide coverage. \[p. 182\] 42\. Overlay Network: A network that is built on top of another network. It adds additional services or functionalities not provided by the underlying infrastructure. \[p. 194\] 43\. Physical Carrier Sense: A process in wireless networks where devices detect the presence of other signals on the channel before transmitting, to avoid collisions. \[p. 189\] 44\. Physical Topology: The physical layout of devices, cables, and network components within a network, showing how they are connected. \[p. 184\] 45\. Power over Ethernet (PoE): A technology that allows electrical power to be delivered over Ethernet cables, enabling devices like APs or cameras to be powered through the same cable used for data transmission. \[p. 181\] 46\. Probe Frame: A message sent by a wireless device to discover available wireless networks and assess signal strength. \[p. 189\] 47\. Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID): A technology that uses multiple hard drives to improve data redundancy, performance, or both. It is commonly used in servers and storage systems. \[p. 204\] 48\. Request to Send (RTS): A control message sent by a wireless device to an access point, asking for permission to transmit data. Used to avoid collisions in wireless networks. \[p. 190\] 49\. Server Virtualization: A technology that allows multiple virtual servers to run on a single physical server, improving resource utilization and flexibility. \[p. 198\] 50\. Shielded Twisted-pair (STP): A type ofHere are the remaining definitions for the key terms from Chapter 7: Wired and Wireless Local Area Networks: 51\. Shielded Twisted-pair (STP): A type of cable that contains twisted pairs of wires, surrounded by shielding to reduce electrical interference. It is used in environments where external noise might affect signal transmission. \[p. 179\] 52\. Site Survey: The process of examining and assessing a physical location to determine the optimal placement for wireless access points. This helps to ensure adequate coverage and performance for a wireless network. \[p. 195\] 53\. Small-office, Home-office (SOHO): A type of local area network designed for small businesses or home office environments, typically characterized by fewer users and simpler infrastructure. \[p. 180\] 54\. Storage Area Network (SAN): A specialized high-speed network that provides block-level storage access. SANs are typically used to provide centralized, shared access to large storage arrays. \[p. 199\] 55\. Store-and-forward Switching: A method of switching where the entire frame is received before it is forwarded to its destination. This method allows the switch to check for errors before forwarding. \[p. 187\] 56\. Switch: A network device that connects multiple devices on a LAN and uses MAC addresses to forward data only to the intended device, improving network efficiency compared to hubs. \[p. 180\] 57\. Switched Ethernet: A type of Ethernet network where each device connects to a switch, which forwards data to its intended destination using MAC addresses. This provides full-duplex communication and reduces collisions. \[p. 194\] 58\. Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): A type of computing where multiple processors share a single, centralized memory and operating system, improving performance by allowing parallel processing. \[p. 204\] 59\. Topology: The physical or logical arrangement of devices, cables, and other network components in a network. Common types include bus, ring, star, and mesh topologies. \[p. 184\] 60\. Twisted-pair Cable: A type of cable commonly used in wired LANs, consisting of pairs of wires twisted together to reduce interference. Twisted-pair cables are categorized based on their transmission speeds and shielding. \[p. 181\] 61\. Unshielded Twisted-pair (UTP) Cable: A common type of twisted-pair cable that lacks additional shielding, making it more affordable but also more susceptible to interference compared to shielded twisted-pair cables. \[p. 179\] 62\. Virtual Carrier Sense: A mechanism in wireless networks that helps avoid collisions by having devices send a "virtual" signal to inform other devices about ongoing transmissions. It works in conjunction with physical carrier sensing. \[p. 190\] 63\. Virtual LAN (VLAN): A logical grouping of devices on a network that behave as if they are on the same physical network, even though they may be on different segments. VLANs provide better security and network management. \[p. 190\] 64\. Wireless Ethernet (Wi-Fi): A set of standards for wireless LAN communication, allowing devices to connect to a network without the use of physical cables. Wi-Fi networks typically use the IEEE 802.11 standard. \[p. 189\] 65\. Wi-Fi Controller: A device or software that manages and controls multiple wireless access points in a network, providing centralized management of security, configuration, and monitoring. \[p. 196\] 66\. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA): A security protocol used to secure wireless networks. WPA addresses some of the weaknesses of the earlier WEP standard by providing stronger encryption and better authentication mechanisms. \[p. 193\] 67\. WiGig: A wireless communication technology that operates in the 60 GHz frequency band, offering high data transfer speeds over short distances, often used for device-to-device communication. \[p. 192\] 68\. Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP): An older security protocol for wireless networks, providing encryption and authentication. WEP has been replaced by stronger protocols like WPA and WPA2 due to its vulnerabilities. \[p. 192\] 69\. Wireless LAN (WLAN): A local area network that uses wireless communication to connect devices. WLANs use radio waves to transmit data between devices, often using the Wi-Fi standard. \[p. 180\] 70\. 100Base-T: An Ethernet standard that supports data transmission at 100 Mbps over twisted-pair cables. \[p. 188\] 71\. 1000Base-T: A Gigabit Ethernet standard that supports data transmission at 1 Gbps over twisted-pair cables. \[p. 188\] 72\. 10/100/1000 Ethernet: An Ethernet technology that supports multiple transmission speeds---10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1 Gbps---providing flexibility in network performance. \[p. 188\] 73\. 1GbE: Gigabit Ethernet, a network technology that supports data transfer rates of 1 Gbps, commonly used in modern LANs. \[p. 188\] 74\. 10GbE: 10 Gigabit Ethernet, a high-speed Ethernet standard that supports data transmission at 10 Gbps, typically used in data centers and high-performance networks. \[p. 188\] 75\. 40GbE: A high-performance Ethernet standard that supports data transmission at 40 Gbps, primarily used in large-scale networks and data centers. \[p. 188\] 76\. 100GbE: An Ethernet standard supporting data transmission at 100 Gbps, used in very high-performance networks such as data centers and research institutions. \[p. 188\] 77\. 802.11ac: A Wi-Fi standard that operates on the 5 GHz band and provides higher throughput and speed compared to earlier standards like 802.11n. \[p. 191\] 78\. 802.11ad: A Wi-Fi standard that operates in the 60 GHz band, offering very high data transfer rates over short distances. It is also known as WiGig. \[p. 192\] 79\. 802.11b: A Wi-Fi standard that operates on the 2.4 GHz band and provides data transfer speeds of up to 11 Mbps. \[p. 191\] 80\. 802.11g: A Wi-Fi standard that operates on the 2.4 GHz band and provides data transfer speeds of up to 54 Mbps. \[p. 191\] 81\. 802.11n: A Wi-Fi standard that operates on both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands and provides higher data transfer rates than previous standards. \[p. 191\] 82\. 802.11ac: A Wi-Fi standard that offers improved speed and performance over earlier standards, operating on the 5 GHz band and providing high throughput. \[p. 191\] 83\. 802.11ad: Also known as WiGig, it operates in the 60 GHz band and provides extremely high data rates over short distances. \[p. 192\] 84\. 802.11ax: The latest Wi-Fi standard (also known as Wi-Fi 6), which improves performance, efficiency, and capacity, especially in environments with many devices. \[p. 191\]