Chapter 3: "I Am Canadian" - What is Canadian Culture? PDF

CHAPTER 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? © Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com “...

CHAPTER 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? © Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com “ I am Canadian, a free Canadian, free to speak without fear, free to worship in my own way, free to stand for what I think right, free to oppose what I believe wrong, or free to choose those who shall govern my country. This heritage of freedom I pledge to uphold ” for myself and all mankind. (John Diefenbaker, from the Canadian Bill of Rights, July 1, 1960)1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES & OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following: LO1 Define culture and distinguish between LO5 Identify shared values and debate the material and nonmaterial forms. correspondence between cultural values and norms using functionalist and conflict LO2 Distinguish between high culture and perspectives. popular culture, and outline a critical view of popular culture. LO6 Explain why values exist alongside contradictory norms. LO3 Explain why language is viewed as a precursor to shared understandings. LO7 Describe features of Canadian culture that make it unique. LO4 Explain why norms are considered to be regulators of shared behaviours. 03_ch03.indd 48 4/9/21 4:40 AM  TYPES OF CULTURE constantly being created and re-created, rather than a single, unified Canadian identity (Sumara et al., LO1 DEFINING CULTURE 2001). For the sake of simplicity, however, we will continue to use the singular term culture in this If you were asked to describe what is unique about chapter. Basic elements of culture set the foundation “Canadian culture,” what would your response for our expectations and behaviours, which are rooted include? Would you emphasize similarities or dif- in geography, climate, language, norms, and values, as ferences among Canadians? Is shovelling snow well as the existing artifacts of “our” time and the tra- worth mentioning as a typical expectation for ditions passed down to us from previous generations. most Canadians? Do you think Canadian culture In this chapter, we discuss basic elements of Canadian is distinct because it includes traditions main- culture and try to locate features that contribute to its tained by various groups of Indigenous Peoples? uniqueness as well as features that maintain differ- Would you mention the Quebec sovereignty move- ences, including opposing views of what it means to ment or regional differences in perceived identity? be Canadian based on regional, ancestral, and political Would your portrayal refer to well-known Canadian underpinnings. symbols such as the flag, the Maple Leaf, Molson Canadian beer, hockey games, or the Tim Hortons franchise? Would you locate Canadian culture MATERIAL AND in music by Leonard Cohen, Celine Dion, Justin NONMATERIAL CULTURE Bieber, or Drake, or in paintings by Emily Carr or Robert Bateman? Your response could include some, We are where we live and who we live among! Although all, or none of these accounts. Indeed, the concept many of our decisions in life involve some level of of “culture” is interpreted in so many incompatible individual “choice,” engaging our sociological imagi- ways that some describe it as one of the most com- nations means we look for the ways those choices are plicated words in the English language (Williams, intertwined with larger sociocultural forces, such as 1976, p. 87). the culture in which we are raised. It is precisely this For sociologists, culture encompasses the sum culture that informs many (but not all) Canadians total of the social environment in which we are raised about the pleasures of eating poutine or pizza on a and continue to be socialized in throughout our lives. Friday night and similarly This means that culture entails a wide assortment fails to teach just as many Culture: The sum total of shared and contested ideas, customs, behaviours, (but not all) Canadians of the social environment in which we are raised and and practices that in turn, shape the attitudes and to prefer black pudding continue to be socialized behaviours of members of that culture. Although all (a type of sausage usu- throughout our lives. societies and even groups within the same culture ally made with the coag- Cultural universals: differ in how they originate; in the challenges they ulated blood of pigs that Common practices shared face (e.g., in terms of climate or sustenance); in how is popular in Britain) or by all societies. they come to believe in ideas, relate to one another, balut (a hard-boiled egg and carry out specific practices, they also share certain features. For example, all societies find ways to secure food, clothing, and shelter; all societies develop forms of communication and familial structures; all societies implement ways to use tools; and all societies come up with means for self-expression—practices that anthropologist George Murdock (1945) termed © Sergei Bachlakov/shutterstock.com cultural universals. The postmodern perspective you were introduced to in Chapter 1 emphasizes the changing nature of society and is therefore a useful lens for examining the diversity and progression of Canadian culture. By recognizing cultural differences among divergent groups that make up Canada, the postmodern lens affirms that we are discussing what can be described as multiple simultaneous Canadian “cultures” that are Hockey is one of the defining symbols of Canadian culture. CHAPTER 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 49 03_ch03.indd 49 4/9/21 4:40 AM  containing a fertilized duck embryo that is a delicacy in Asia). Similarly, through socialization practices (see Chapter 4), Canadians come to share cultural ideas about what is important (e.g., publicly funded education and healthcare), and how to behave (e.g., by following certain rules such as paying taxes, and engaging in cultural practices such as gift giving on © Michael C. Gray/shutterstock.com; special occasions like birthdays and weddings, or tip- ping service providers in sit-down restaurants and hair salons). Sociologist William Fielding Ogburn (1922) used the term social heritage to describe the common cultural world into which children of a particular group are born. He also noted the importance that people attach to mate- © JAS Photo/shutterstock.com; © Modernista Magazine/shutterstock.com; rial objects and the central role that material belongings take on in any given culture. Material culture includes all of the tangible or physical objects that people have created for use in a culture, such as articles of clothing and other consumer goods, various forms of housing, buildings including schools and places of worship, means of transportation, tools, and works of art. In con- trast, intangibles stemming from intellectual and/or spir- © MJ Photography/Alamy; © Nikoleta Vukovic/shutterstock.com; itual development, or the meanings that people attach to artifacts, are considered aspects of nonmaterial culture. Examples of nonmaterial culture include language, knowledge, symbols, customs, morals, beliefs, and prac- tices that help organize and give meaning to our Material culture: social world. Material and Tangible or physical items that people have nonmaterial culture both © Africa Studio/shutterstock.com; © Rido/shutterstock.com created for use in and contribute to our under- Butter tarts, maple syrup, poutine, dulse, and bannock may give meaning to in a given standings of ourselves culture. originate in Canada, but pizza and sushi are equally popular staple and the world around us. foods. Nonmaterial culture: Cultural diffusion refers Intangibles produced by to the spread of material intellectual or spiritual Pizza originated in Naples, Italy in the 1700s but development; also, the and nonmaterial aspects use of artifacts in a given of culture from one social didn’t leave its borders until the 1940s (Turim, 2019). culture. group to another through Individuals who travel abroad or immigrate to countries various means including with vastly different cultures from their own experience Cultural diffusion: The spread of material communication, trade, culture shock, a sense of disorientation and confusion and nonmaterial forms of intermarriage, immigra- that results when placed in unfamiliar surroundings culture from one social where objects, practices, language, and rules are new or group to another through tion, and technology. For various means including example, English is the unknown (see Sociology in My Community). trade, immigration, and most commonly spoken technology. language throughout the TIME TO REVIEW Culture shock: A world today largely due to sense of disorientation and confusion that results early Eurocentric impe- How do sociologists define culture? when placed in unfamiliar rialism and trade (World surroundings where What is the distinction between material Population Review, 2019). aspects of the material and and nonmaterial culture? nonmaterial culture are Much of Canada’s diverse new or unknown. cuisine and staple foods originate in other cultures. 50 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations 03_ch03.indd 50 4/9/21 4:40 AM  YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION AND CULTURE SHOCK A recent Government of Canada initiative called them compete in global markets. At present, most Building on Success: International Education international students come from India or China, Strategy 2019–2024 is expanding study and work but new efforts prioritize a diverse range of target abroad opportunities for Canadian students, par- countries including!Brazil, Colombia, France, Indo- ticularly in Asian countries, where students can nesia, Mexico, Morocco, the Philippines, Thailand, gain cross-cultural!competencies that will help Turkey, Ukraine, and Vietnam (Global Affairs Canada, 2019). International students often experience cul- ture shock, and this may manifest in feelings of frustration or anger, and the tendency to become withdrawn from others. Recommended coping strategies include learning about Canadian culture prior to arrival, bringing items that are reminders of home to ward off loneliness, asking questions when uncertain, getting involved in social events such as © Lucky Business/shutterstock.com student clubs, giving oneself time to adapt, and speaking with other students about life in Canada (EduCanada, 2019). Think Outside the Box: Imagine you are visiting a country where you cannot speak the language and everyday practices such as driving a motor vehicle or trying to communicate through hand gestures follow different rules than what you are accustomed Students studying abroad often experience symptoms to. What would you do to manage in this environ- of culture shock. ment? LO2 HIGH CULTURE AND According to French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002), cultural and educational practices lead POPULAR CULTURE to the social reproduction of classes. Those in the higher HIGH CULTURE AND THE SOCIAL classes have more financial resources, and this allows more exposure to high culture; also, they have been ELITE socialized by their families and by their education to Canada’s distinctiveness is also evident in its high cul- understand and appreciate various aspects of that cul- ture and popular culture. For sociologists, high culture ture. Members of the social elite then pass on their refers to activities shared mainly by the social elite, who shared understanding and appreciation of high cul- supposedly possess an appreciation for this culture and ture to future generations as a social asset (Bourdieu, the resources necessary to immerse themselves in it 1973). Participants in (i.e., wealth and higher education). High culture con- this elite culture can be High culture: Activities sists of the many forms of creative and performing arts distinguished from lower shared by the social elite. (e.g., visual, theatre, and music). Famous Canadian per- classes based on their Status symbols: forming arts include the Canadian Opera Company, the status symbols. Status Material indicators of Stratford Festival, the Montréal Symphony Orchestra, symbols are material wealth and prestige. and the Royal Winnipeg Ballet. indicators of wealth and CHAPTER 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 51 03_ch03.indd 51 4/9/21 4:40 AM  society, much of pop culture is promoted and even constructed via the mass media (e.g., music idols, tel- evision and movie celebrities, and sports icons). Courtesy of Orchestre symphonique de Montréal YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY THE MERGING OF HIGH AND!POPULAR CULTURE Views of high and popular culture continue to change over time with early roots in the conflict perspective giving way to more negotiated frameworks within a The Montréal Symphony Orchestra postmodern era. Cultural theorist John Storey (2018) explains how popular culture is best described as an prestige including imported luxury cars (Ferrari, “empty [emphasis in original] conceptual category,” Porsche, and Rolls-Royce), designer clothing and one that can be filled in various potentially conflicting jewellery (Gucci, Chanel, and Hermès), and paint- ways. One way to consider popular culture is to view ings by highly praised artists (Van Gogh, Picasso, and it as “the culture that is left over after we have decided Cèzanne). what is high culture”; however, it can also be consid- ered a power struggle involving dominant and subor- POPULAR CULTURE AND THE MASSES dinate classes, a venue for distinguishing various social High culture is often contrasted with popular cul- groups from the dominant one, or simply as aspects of ture, a term typically used to describe the everyday culture that are widely favoured or well liked by both cultural practices and products most desired by the the general masses and the social elite (pp. 1–12). masses. Canadian popular culture encompasses Critical approaches view pop culture from the per- movies and television series, social media such as spective of ideology. Ideology refers to a set of ideas Twitter and Instagram, and heavily marketed products that support the needs and views of a particular group. that may or may not originate in Canada (e.g., the Conflict theorists generally view popular culture as latest Fitbit, Lego, Barbie, vintage-inspired jeans, and a means for the ruling class to control the masses. In Canada Goose parkas). Popular culture also includes Understanding Popular Culture, John Fiske (2010) well-established spots to eat, drink, or shop, such as explains that popular culture is intricately tied into McDonald’s, Tim Hortons, and Lululemon. Popular capitalism because it is the producers who determine culture, also called “pop culture,” is sometimes what exists for the masses to consume. But this is not equated with “youth culture.” A distinct youth culture a one-way relationship, and the links between the emerged following the Second World War, a time char- two are important for understanding how the masses acterized by a significant increase in births as well as themselves help shape popular culture (see Sociology by economic prosperity, which gave people more dis- in My Life). Specifically, the masses impart their own posable income to spend on leisure, fashion, and the meanings to the objects created by the capitalists and mass media (e.g., music). Since that time, specific eras in doing so play an important role in shaping the face have even been referred to by the pop culture preva- of consumerism. For example, when asked why jeans lent at the time (e.g., hippie, disco, punk, and hip- are so popular, Fiske’s students explained that wearing hop) (Danesi, 2019). But although pop culture is now jeans gives them the freedom to “be themselves.” often associated with youth culture, it extends further Paradoxically, the students felt they were expressing back in history; in fact, individuality even while conforming to the dress pat- when fictional “novels” terns of the wider group. Although producers of jeans Popular culture: Well- are obviously out to make a profit, capitalism as an ide- liked everyday practices first emerged in the 15th and products. century, they were con- ology is not directly transmitted into the commodities sidered to be the pop cul- it produces. By purchasing jeans consumers contribute Ideology: A set of ideas that support the needs and ture of the masses, rather to capitalism and enable it to thrive. But in addition, by views of a particular group. than the high culture of paying attention to the meanings of their products for the elite. In contemporary consumers, producers can expand into various styles 52 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations 03_ch03.indd 52 4/9/21 4:40 AM  and designer labels to suit individual preferences (e.g., skinny jeans, boot-cut jeans, vintage-inspired jeans). HOW CULTURE SHAPES OUR Finally, it is important to note that the original UNDERSTANDINGS emphasis on elites consuming and reproducing high culture while the masses are engaged in popular forms LO3 LANGUAGE AS A PRECURSOR of culture bears little resemblance to today’s consump- tion patterns. Someone with a low income may forego TO SHARED UNDERSTANDINGS buying tickets to the symphony but can still enjoy the Language is the primary facilitator of culture because very best performances on YouTube. And anyone with it is the main channel through which people express talent and ambition might become an overnight sensa- themselves and pass acquired knowledge on from one tion or consumer “influencer” as a function of social generation to the next. Sociologists define language media. Sociologist Richard Peterson (1992) notes that as a shared system of communication that includes although those in the upper classes are still more likely spoken, written, and signed forms of speech as well as than those in the lower classes to appreciate certain fea- nonverbal gestures used to convey meaning. Ninety- tures of high culture (e.g., symphonic music) and to par- eight percent of all Canadians can speak English ticipate in some of the more traditionally elite activities or French, and most households have adopted one (e.g., attending the opera and owning art collections), of these two official languages as their primary lan- they are also very likely to enjoy various genres of music guage at home (Statistics Canada, 2016). English is and participate in pop culture. Peterson used the term the most prevalent language spoken in most prov- “cultural omnivores” to describe those of high social inces and territories with the exception of Quebec standing who enjoy high culture and are just as likely to (where almost three quarters of people are French- participate in non-elite activities, whereas Storey (2018) speaking) and Nunavut (where 70 percent of the pop- suggests the postmodern era, in its blurring of the dis- ulation speaks an Inuit language) (Statistics Canada, tinction between high and popular culture, may be con- 2016). However, a multitude of languages coexist in tributing to the end of this form of “elitism.” Canadian society. Canada consists of divergent groups, including Indigenous Peoples (i.e., First Nations, Inuit, and TIME TO REVIEW Métis), early colonizers (i.e., the English and the French), and millions of immigrants (e.g., Chilean, What is the difference between high East Indian, Japanese, culture and popular culture? South Korean, Lebanese, Language: A shared Iranian, Syrian, German, In what ways does the conflict system of communication Chinese, American, that includes spoken, perspective present a negative view of written, and signed forms Italian, Polish, Ukrainian, popular culture? of speech as well as Russian, Dutch, and nonverbal gestures used to Filipino). Significant convey meaning. portions of these groups YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE IN WHAT WAYS DO YOU INFLUENCE POPULAR CULTURE? Consider items you possess that are indicative of is in part negotiated by the masses, which help shape popular culture (e.g., your clothing brands, your various what becomes popular at a given point in time. electronic gadgets). Without identifying basic functions of your smartphone (to make and accept calls or to Think Outside the Box: In what ways is the meaning send and receive messages), how would you describe your phone has for you shaped by the wider mobile what your phone means to you? Fiske (2010) suggested phone industry? Conversely, in what ways does the that we should view popular culture as something that meaning it has for you shape that industry? CHAPTER 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 53 03_ch03.indd 53 4/9/21 4:40 AM  and their descendants speak languages other than Language is a central component of culture as it English and French and engage in a variety of tradi- contributes to identity, cultural diversity, and freedom tional cultural practices. For example, more than 70 of expression. Mother tongue refers to the first lan- Indigenous languages, stemming from 12 language guage learned at home in childhood that is still families, are spoken in Canada. The number of people understood by an individual at the time the informa- who speak an Indigenous language has increased over tion on language is collected. If a person learned two the last decade suggesting that younger people are languages in childhood (and still understands them), learning Indigenous languages as second languages the mother tongue is the language that was spoken (Statistics Canada, 2017). There are now twice as most often at home prior to starting school (Statistics many children who can speak an Indigenous lan- Canada, 2020). Canada’s linguistic diversity is evi- guage compared to Elders (McIver, 2018). Many dent by the more than 200 languages reported as unilingual English-speaking parents in Onion Lake mother tongues and the 4.7 million Canadians (14.2 Cree Nation (straddling the border between Alberta percent of the population) who continue to speak a and Saskatchewan) send their children to Kihew language other than French or English on a regular Waciston Cree Immersion School, a school aimed at basis (Statistics Canada, 2012). About 20 percent of “[educating] the next generation of language and cul- Canada’s population speaks a language other than tural keepers” through a focus on “language reten- French or English at least on occasion. Within this tion, spoken language, and Cree identity” that not population, immigrant languages are more preva- only ensures Cree language remains vibrant in subse- lent than Indigenous languages or sign languages. In quent generations but also teaches youth about “kin- recent years, the numbers have especially increased ship” and “[reminds] the among groups speaking Tagalog (a Philippine lan- Mother tongue: The youth about who they guage), Mandarin, Arabic, Hindi, Creoles, Bengali, first language learned at are” (National Centre Persian, and Spanish (Statistics Canada, 2012). home in childhood that is still understood by an for Collaboration in Indigenous Education, YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT individual. SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY 2020). SOCIOLOGY ON SCREEN ONE DAY IN THE LIFE OF NOAH PIUGATTUK Kotierk), a Inuit hunter, and his encounter with a government official (played by Kim Bodnia) in 1961. In what was largely incomprehensible at the time, Noah Piugattuk was asked to give up his Inuit culture by relocating his family to a permanent settlement through what eventually became known as the colo- nial practice of assimilation. Kunuk also produced Atanarjuat (The Fast Runner), considered to be one of Canada’s best Courtesy of Kingulliit Productions. Used with permission. films of all time for its depiction of Inuit culture and its emphasis on the importance of oral history in Produced and directed by multiple award-winning film the transmission of cultural values. Atanarjuat was maker Zacharia Kunuk, One Day in the Life of Noah Canada’s first-ever full-length feature film written, Piugattuk (2020) is a Canadian drama based on the produced, directed, and acted exclusively by people of true story of Noah Piugattuk (portrayed by Apayata Inuit heritage. 54 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations 03_ch03.indd 54 4/9/21 4:40 AM  THE SAPIR–WHORF HYPOTHESIS Language serves as a referent such that aspects of material and nonmaterial culture come to take on meanings that are understood similarly by people who share a common culture and speak the same language. Hence, to English-speaking people living in Canada, the concept “dog” clearly represents a four-legged, fur- covered, domesticated animal that barks and makes © Aurora Photos/Alamy for a loyal pet. But language is even more fundamental than this because it also helps construct abstract forms of cultural reality. Anthropologist and linguist Edward Sapir (1884–1939) first became intrigued by how language shapes people’s world views when he came across Franz Boas’s (1911/1976) early study of Hopi Not all translations appropriately convey an intended Indian language and noted the absence of an objec- meaning. tive sense of time. For instance, where we might say “the light flashed,” a Hopi Indian would say Reh-pi or “flash,” without a subject (i.e., the light) and with Language helps us appreciate how vastly dif- no reference to time (Carroll, 1956, p. viii). Because ferent cultures may be from one another. This is of how they use and understand language, the Hopi especially evident in the language used to describe likely experience the world quite differently from prevalent aspects of climate, geography, and material other groups that use languages that make references culture. Inuit languages, for example, have different to time—for example, with past, present, and future words for snow (e.g., to depict crunchy snow, soft verb tenses. This revelation led Sapir to believe that snow, old snow); the Italian language differentiates language helps establish thinking—a phenomenon we among types of pasta (e.g., spaghetti, vermicelli, and now refer to as the principle of linguistic determination. penne), and there are a variety of Arabic words delin- Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941), Sapir’s student, eating subtle differences in camels and camel equip- found that how language is used to label and code ment (Bryson, 1990, pp. 14–15). Words and phrases events and objects is also important for understanding unique to Canadians and Canadian culture are called what those things mean in a particular culture. In “Canadianisms,” such as “tuque” (a peaked woollen Whorf’s words: “We cut nature up, into concepts, and winter hat), “washroom” (public toilet), “chester- ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are field” (a type of sofa), and “eh” (an expression at parties to an agreement to organize it in this way—an the end of a sentence used to turn it into a question) agreement that holds throughout our speech commu- (Dollinger, & Fee, 2017). nity and is codified in the patterns of our language” The nuances of language and meaning are espe- (Carroll, 1956, p. 213). In the Hopi language, only cially apparent in blunders that occur when products some events reflecting a brief duration, such as “light- are marketed in foreign countries. As Pop and Sim ning,” “wave,” and “flame,” are represented as verbs, (2019) note: “Many executives interviewed admitted whereas in Nootka (a language native to Vancouver that misunderstandings and “messages lost in transla- Island), every word is a verb; hence, a “house” (which tion” have halted major international business deals would be a noun in the English language for a shelter) for their companies” (p. 43). For example, when the is stated more in terms of its functional proper- Coca-Cola Company began marketing in China, it ties, as in “it houses” (or provides a shelter); simi- introduced Chinese characters that sound similar to larly, a “flame occurs” (Carroll, 1956, pp. 215–216). the English pronunciation of the product’s name (i.e., Whorf’s position that language has particular meaning “ke-ke-ken-la”). However, the literal meaning of those within the given culture in which it occurs is com- sounds, “bite the wax tad- monly referred to today as linguistic relativism. Taken pole” or “a wax-flattened together, the principles of linguistic determination mare” (depending on Sapir–Whorf and linguistic relativism form what is called the Sapir– the dialect), did not hypothesis: The assertion that language Whorf hypothesis. That hypothesis, named after its resonate well with cus- helps shape reality for two proponents, then, is the assertion that language tomers, and the charac- those experiencing it. helps shape reality for those experiencing it. ters were soon changed to CHAPTER 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 55 03_ch03.indd 55 4/9/21 4:40 AM  “ko-kou-ko-le” to fit a more pleasant interpretation: Examples of mores in Canadian culture include “happiness in the mouth” (p. 38). Likewise, video formal legislation (i.e., laws) stating that no one is game software developer Sega Corporation ran into allowed to trespass, commit theft, or sell prohibited an issue when it began marketing in Italy because drugs. Taboos are mores that have such strong moral “say-ga” as pronounced in English refers to male mas- connotations attached to them that the acts are con- turbation in Italian. Hence, to disassociate itself from sidered wrong in and of themselves (e.g., cannibalism any potential misinterpretation, the company goes by and incest). Transgression of mores and taboos gen- “see-ga” in Italy (Texin, 2011). erally results in formal sanctions, such as the loss of personal freedom (i.e., a prison term). Sociologists also distinguish between prescriptive LO4 NORMS AS REGULATORS and proscriptive norms. Prescriptive norms are rules OF SHARED BEHAVIOURS depicting behaviours we are expected to perform, such Language is often used by members of a given culture as covering one’s mouth while coughing, respecting to communicate expectations about appropriate con- the rights of others, and following the appropriate duct. This is another way that language places restric- authority structures in the workplace. Proscriptive norms are rules outlining behaviours we are expected tions on individuals. How many times did a parent nag you to brush your teeth, wash your hands, or finish to refrain from doing, such as speaking with one’s your supper before starting your dessert? Did your mouth full, swearing in church, or taking drugs that teachers ever remind you to stay seated, sit quietly, impair one’s ability to perform in the workplace. or raise your hand before answering in class? Recall from Chapter 1 that norms are expectations for how NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AS A we are supposed to act, think, and look. For sociolo- CONVEYER OF CULTURAL MEANING gists, folkways are informal norms based on accepted Signs of disapproval and other informal sanctions traditions and centre on acts of kindness or politeness are often applied through nonverbal communica- that demonstrate respect for the generalized other. For tion. For example, a person who joins a friend at the example, unless you have been specifically told to do front of a lineup at Tim Hortons may receive disap- otherwise, you probably address your instructor with proving looks from other patrons. Similarly, when his or her formal title (e.g., “Doctor” or “Professor”), someone cuts in front of you in traffic, you might and wait your turn in a lineup to purchase coffee. Note blow your horn or perhaps even give the other driver that culture is always changing, and that is why you a hand gesture, such as the well-known middle-finger are much more inclined than your parents to begin “salute,” to communicate displeasure. Use caution an email or answer the phone with the greeting “hey” rather than “hello.” Note that aspects of culture are also “contested” (i.e., disputed), and that is why some of your instructors may still frown on the use of “hey” as an appropriate con- versation starter. Failure Folkways: Informal norms based on accepted to comply with cultural traditions. expectations in the form © Candy Davis. Courtesy of Icon Experience Photography Mores: Institutionalized of folkways generally norms embedded in laws results in informal sanc- used to help maintain tions (i.e., punishments), social control. such as expressions of dis- Taboos: Mores that are approval from others. considered wrong in and of Mores refer to insti- themselves. tutionalized norms that Prescriptive norms: are considered to embody Rules concerning behaviours fundamental values. we are expected to perform. Mores are a formalized Proscriptive norms: means for maintaining Rules concerning behaviours we are expected social control in society to refrain from doing. (this is discussed in more This gesture is common to Canadians and is used to display detail in Chapter 11). pleasure. 56 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations 03_ch03.indd 56 4/9/21 4:40 AM  while travelling in a foreign country and attempting 2. Belief in consultation and dialogue. Canadians to communicate using a gesture from your homeland. regarded themselves as “people who settle their There are no universal gestures. Even commonplace differences peacefully and in a consultative rather Western gestures, such as waving hello or showing than confrontational manner” (p. 37) at both the a peace sign, can mean different things in other cul- level of individuals and the level of government. tures. All cultures, however, possess similar categories Participants noted that relations could be vastly of gestures. For example, they have gestures (albeit improved if there were more opportunities for educa- different ones) for displays of friendship or anger. tional visitor exchanges, particularly those designed Also, some facial expressions are widely recognized to illuminate issues involving Quebec’s place in across cultures (e.g., happiness, sadness, anger, sur- Confederation. prise, disgust, and fear). 3. Importance of accommodation and tolerance. “Forum Nonverbal gestures with direct verbal equivalents participants recognize the existence of different are known as emblems. Emblems are typically used groups in societies and their need to sustain their in place of words, an example being the traffic salute own cultures while attaching themselves to the (“flipping a bird”) mentioned earlier. Gestures are also country’s society, values, and institutions. As well, used for greetings or displays of pleasure. Canadians they acknowledge the existence of various legiti- display what looks like sideways “horns” with the mate competing regional and cultural interests in index finger and pinky extended and pointing side- Canada” (p. 40). Acceptance and support were ways or even down (see the grad photo) to indicate expressed especially in relation to overall ethnic that they are having “fun.” A similar gesture with the diversity and the need to accommodate Indigenous extended index finger and pinky pointing up is often self-government. displayed as “devil horns” by fans and band members at heavy metal concerts. 4. Support for diversity. Repeatedly, participants noted the importance of retaining and celebrating Canada’s rich diversity in terms of language, region, ethnicity, LO5 VALUES AS SHARED IDEAS and culture. This value is the overarching principle Recall that cultural values are collectively shared ideas for the Canadian Multiculturalism Act as described about what is right and wrong. In 1990, the federal in Sociology in Practice. government created a task force to gather opinions 5. Compassion and generosity. Canadians recognized from Canadians about their views on Canada’s future the importance of supporting the collective in the and what it means to be Canadian. By the end of an form of “universal and extensive social services, our eight-month data-gathering process, 75,069 calls had health care system, our pensions, our willingness been received via an idea line, more than 13,000 group to welcome refugees, discussions had taken place involving 315,000 par- and our commitment Emblems: Gestures with ticipants, 7,056 letters had been received, and more to regional economic direct verbal equivalents. than 300,000 elementary and secondary students had equalization” (p. 42). participated in various forums (such as the Citizens’ Forum on Canada’s Future, 1991). Extensive analyses revealed that, taken together, participants identified seven common unifying Canadian values2: 1. Belief in equality and fairness in a democratic society. The participants identified equality and fairness as a core value. One group, from Newfoundland, told the commission: “We believe that most Canadians want © Elena_Suvorova/shutterstock.com a society that … protects national interests while remaining responsive and accountable, to individ- ual rights; … protects freedom, so that individuals can live in the manner of their choice, so long as they do not infringe on the rights of others; … protects the rights of all Canadians to fair and equal treatment: women, ethnic minorities, different linguistic groups, aboriginal peoples, various reli- gions, etc.” (p. 35). Canadians value Canada’s natural beauty. CHAPTER 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 57 03_ch03.indd 57 4/9/21 4:40 AM  6. Attachment to Canada’s natural beauty. Canada’s example, Canadians value freedom and equality, natural environment was identified as important. including the right to choose marital partners (e.g., This was summarized by one person, who said, based on things such as love and mutual respect); this “All Canadians love the land” (p. 42). Widespread translates into laws recognizing same-sex marriages concern for the environment was best captured and laws permitting the adoption of children by same- by a group in Nova Scotia: “The beauty of our sex couples. Similarly, people agree that diversity is country … must be preserved through stricter important; the Government of Canada officially sanc- laws regarding pollution and other environmental tions diversity, and this is stated in various policies. hazards” (p. 43). For example, diversity is specifically recognized in the 7. Our world image: Commitment to freedom, peace, preamble to the Canadian Multiculturalism Act: “AND and nonviolent change. Finally, the maintenance of WHEREAS the Government of Canada recognizes a progressive but free and peace-keeping country the diversity of Canadians as regards race, national was expressed by forum participants who felt that or ethnic origin, colour and religion as a funda- “Canadians are generally respected throughout the mental characteristic of Canadian society” (Canadian world,” that “resorts to violence … have no rightful Multiculturalism Act, 1985, p. 4). place in Canada,” and that “a Canadian is a person, So far, you have learned that culture is a broad regardless of ethnic origin, who … feels free to concept that encompasses both tangible and intan- develop in his or her own, individual way” (p. 44). gible aspects of life that come to have meanings for a given group. Language plays an important role in creating and shaping reality as experienced by the CORRESPONDING VALUES members of a culture. Language in verbal and non- AND!NORMS verbal forms contributes to cultural diversity; it also Cultural values and norms are closely related in that helps regulate members of a culture through collec- values reflect group ideas, whereas norms are those tively shared ideas, referred to as values and behav- ideas translated into expectations about actions. For ioural expectations (i.e., norms). This next section YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE THE CANADIAN MULTICULTURALISM ACT The Canadian Multiculturalism Act, as a policy of (d) preserve and enhance the use of languages Canada, is to be carried out in ways that reflect core other than English and French, while values, as illustrated by these excerpts: strengthening the status and use of the official languages of Canada; and It is hereby declared to be the policy of the Govern- (e) advance multiculturalism throughout ment of Canada to Canada!in harmony with the national (a) recognize and promote the commitment to the official languages understanding!that multiculturalism of!Canada. reflects!the cultural and racial diversity of Canadian society and acknowledges the Multiculturalism as a core Canadian value assumes that freedom of all members of Canadian society all groups are inherently equal within a culture. Soci- to preserve, enhance and share their cultural ologists, however, recognize the existence of a “domi- heritage; … nant” Canadian culture—one that has the entrenched (b) ensure that all individuals receive equal economic strength and political influence to impose its treatment and equal protection under the own cultural preferences on the rest of society. law, while respecting and valuing their Think Outside the Box: Who comprises Canada’s diversity; dominant culture (i.e., what are some attributes of this (c) encourage and assist the social, cultural, group)? Why and how might this group serve to under- economic, and political institutions of mine multicultural values? Canada to be both respectful and inclusive of Canada’s multicultural character; … Source: Canadian Multiculturalism Act, 1985, c. 24 (4th Suppl.), pp. 3–4. 58 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations 03_ch03.indd 58 4/9/21 4:40 AM  takes a closer look at the correspondence between sentiments and when I feel their reality within me, cultural values and norms and examines how well that reality does not cease to be objective, for it is not I Canada lives up to its multicultural aims. Also see who have prescribed these duties; I have received them Critical Thinking in Action to learn more about Bill through education” (p. 50). Durkheim argued that 21—a proposed law that highlights the contradic- people display a collective conscience, that is, a recur- tory nature of multiculturalism in theory versus ring pattern by which they respect norms and follow practice. them, because they have internalized them through early socialization practices (Durkheim, 1893/1933). Internalization of norms means that as time goes YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY on, people come to accept cultural norms and follow them without even being aware they are doing so. This is akin to how you habitually come into every sociology class shortly before it begins, then sit facing FUNCTIONALIST AND the front of the room and take notes during the lec- ture. Similarly, Talcott Parsons (1951) contended that CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES culture is a generalized system of internalized sym- Functionalists contend that shared cultural values are bols and meanings, along with role expectations (i.e., the foundation of society and what holds it together. norms) and general values held by the collectivity. In According to Émile Durkheim, cultural values and this case, norms and values work together at a more norms are social facts—observable social phenomena general level in the form of social institutions (e.g., the external to individuals that exercise power over them family and school) to keep society running smoothly. (Durkheim, 1895/1938). For example, Durkheim In contrast, the conflict perspective highlights posits: “When I perform my duties as a brother, hus- the lack of correspondence and the apparent con- band or citizen and carry out the commitments I have tradictions between cultural values and norms. For entered into, I fulfil obligations which are defined example, even though equality is valued in Canadian in law and custom and which are external to myself society, not all groups are treated equally, as illustrated and my actions. Even when they conform to my own by the more than 150,000 Indigenous children who YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION IS DIVERSITY SUPPORTED IN CANADA? In June 2019, Minister of Immigration, Diversity, and so is necessary to allow their identity to be verified or Inclusiveness Simon Jolin-Barrette introduced Bill 21, for security reasons” (Quebec Official Publisher, 2019). “An Act Respecting the Laicity of the State” into This means women who follow certain Islamic tradi- the Legislature. This bill, designed to uphold French tions are not permitted to wear the face veil known as secularism (the separation between government and the burqa. religion) in Quebec by ensuring religious neutrality and Think Outside the Box: Which of the seven core freedom, prohibits “certain persons from wearing reli- Canadian values discussed earlier in this chapter does gious symbols while exercising their functions.” While Bill 21 most closely support and which does it negate?! ambiguous, the wording implies that public employees must refrain from publicly displaying their faith—not © Rawpixel.com/shutterstock.com just elected officials but also police, teachers, doctors, soldiers, transport workers, and so on. Thus, men in such positions are forbidden to wear turbans (e.g., Sikhs and Muslims) or kippahs (the cloth skullcap worn by Jewish men). The bill further specifies that “members of a body must exercise their functions with their face uncovered, and persons who present themselves to receive a service from such a personnel member must have their face uncovered when doing CHAPTER 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 59 03_ch03.indd 59 4/9/21 4:40 AM  were mistreated in residential schools, which had that may infringe upon their rights. At the same time, been established to integrate them into a predomi- Canada engages with countries that oppose multicul- nantly English-speaking Canadian culture. To learn turalism in favour of more extreme nationalist posi- about those residential schools and the Truth and tions that teach citizens to be mistrustful of minority Reconciliation Commission that has helped to rebuild groups. The United States is especially well known the relationship between Indigenous Peoples and for widespread “Islamophobia,” or extreme distrust Canadian society, refer to Chapter 8. toward individuals perceived to be Muslim following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks by al-Quaeda. Ahmad (2017) predicts that it will be increasingly dif- LO6 IDEAL VERSUS REAL CULTURE ficult for Canada to adhere to its core values if allied To explain the existence of common values alongside countries enact policies against certain immigrant practices that appear to contradict these values, soci- groups based on perceived security threats even if ologists sometimes distinguish between “ideal” and those groups consist of proud Canadians, deeply com- “real” culture. Ideal culture encompasses the cultural mitted to the same core principles. values that most people identify with; real culture These discrepancies between real and ideal cul- refers to the actual practices engaged in. For example, ture are not an exclusively Canadian phenomenon. Canadians value equal rights, and although men and Gannon’s (2008) GLOBE study of 62 national or soci- women are treated similarly under the law, this is not etal cultures found the same paradox: cultural values always the case in practice—women are still disadvan- are consistently associated with cultural practices, but taged by inequities in pay (see Chapter 7). Similarly, those associations are often contradictory. This means Canadians highly value the natural environment and that, more often than not, groups behave in ways that go the need to protect it (ideal culture), yet they also against cultural values. Why does this happen? Beyond engage in practices that harm it. For example, the the ongoing quest for control over scarce resources and oil sands in northern Alberta, where thousands of the desire for profit discussed throughout this book, Canadians have found work, have also been found cultural variations in the existing beliefs and practices to destroy forests, pollute rivers, and emit toxins into of particular groups also help explain the discrepancy. the environment (real culture). Canadians also value For example, French Canadians in the Province of acceptance and support, particularly in reference to Quebec, first settled by French colonists, demonstrated Indigenous Peoples and the right to self-government their propensity toward regionalism (identification (ideal culture), and yet, virtually every historical with their province over a unified Canadian identity), policy enacted was designed to eliminate Indigenous in the last election where Conservatives maintained or cultures (real culture) in the equally strong belief that gained seats in every province except Quebec where everyone should attach themselves to the dominant the Bloc Québécois won 32 seats and the official party values and institutions of Canadian society. Stewart status (Mathews, 2019). (2018) reminds us that much of Canadian culture, and particularly culture involving symbolic references to Canada’s wilderness, has largely been constructed TRADITIONAL BELIEFS VERSUS by White settler culture in a manner that has, for the most part, largely included the erasure of Indigenous MODERN PRACTICES Peoples. Although discovery and invention often serve as pre- Finally, although multiculturalism is highly cursors to cultural change, change is sometimes valued by the majority of Canadians (ideal culture), resisted when modern technology and science advo- it is also met with skepticism and fear (real culture) cate for practices that are inconsistent with traditional because it encourages groups to maintain divergent beliefs that are highly regarded and continue to be part cultural beliefs and practices that may be perceived of a group’s cultural heritage. For example, despite as a threat to Canada’s the well-established health benefits of breastfeeding Ideal culture: Cultural unity. For example, the for both mothers and infants in developing countries, values a majority of people 1982 Canadian Charter cultural beliefs continue to discourage women from identify with in a given of Rights and Freedoms is society. engaging in this practice. Osman et al.’s (2009) study meant to affirm Canada’s of 353 first-time mothers recruited from 17 hospitals Real culture: Practices core value of multicul- spread over five regions of Lebanon revealed that family engaged in by the majority of people in a given turalism and protect its members were a primary source of discouragement and society. citizens from government that numerous cultural beliefs inhibited breastfeeding interventions or actions altogether or led to its discontinuation within a few 60 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations 03_ch03.indd 60 4/9/21 4:40 AM  months. In this case, cultural views included the belief soldiers. Demobilized soldiers face lives of poverty that a mother can harm her infant through her breast because many families live off the equivalent of less milk (e.g., the baby could be poisoned by bad milk, or than a dollar a day, with no access to running water abdominal cramps could be transferred from a mother or electricity and no means to feed additional members to her child via breast milk). In order to think like a (CBC Radio, 2010). According to the deputy head of sociologist, you need to employ the nonjudgmental the Southern Sudan Demobilization, Disarmament and principle of cultural relativism—contending that Reintegration Commission (SSDRC), “Getting food is beliefs and practices are best understood from within very difficult.... So when a child moves from where the culture in which they occur. According to Lavenda he’s getting food easily and whatever [in the military], et al. (2020), we demonstrate cultural relativism when then he goes and he fails [to eat] for something like two we are “understanding another culture in its own terms days, a day without food, then he has to think of going sympathetically enough so that the culture appears to back” (Baddorf, 2010). Moreover, former child soldiers be a coherent and meaningful design for living” (p. 32). suffer psychological issues resulting from being taken The recruitment of child soldiers is another from their families, and from the many traumas and example of a phenomenon that is viewed and prac- abuses suffered while associating with armed forces. tised very divergently depending on the culture in Families of origin often can no longer be located, and which it takes place. Although the United Nations in other cases, the children are not welcome in com- and various human rights organizations call for munities who learned to fear them for their actions as worldwide bans on the recruitment of all individuals soldiers (Médecins Sans Frontières, 2018). Sociologist under the age of 18 for military purposes, deeming Ann Swidler (1986) points out that we have a tendency children associated with armed forces to be victims, to focus too much on trying to explain actions (e.g., a range of countries still allow it. Many of the larger the employment of child soldiers) as based on cultural and wealthier states recruit for the military beginning values (e.g., it is not okay to exploit children), and by at age 17 (e.g., China, France, and the United States) doing so, we may neglect to focus on the distinct cul- and some as young as 16 (e.g., Brazil, Canada, and the tural phenomenon (e.g., widespread poverty) that may United Kingdom). Afghanistan, Democratic Republic be more important as an explanatory agent for why of Congo, Myanmar, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, such ideologies persist. and Yemen are considered among the seven “worst” recruitment countries for enlisting children under the age of 15 (Child Soldiers International, 2016). Some SUBCULTURES AND of these countries are on record for “grave violations” including, for example, Afghanistan’s use in 2018 of COUNTERCULTURES children as young as 8, for “combat, at checkpoints, to Even within Canada, cultural variations exist in beliefs plant improvised explosive devices, to carry out sui- and practices. A subculture is a group that can be differ- cide attacks or other violations” (General Assembly entiated from mainstream Security Council, 2019, p. 5). If you consider it wrong culture by its divergent to recruit a 13-year-old in the Republic of the Sudan traits involving language, Cultural relativism: An ability to understand or in the Republic of South Sudan during a period of norms, beliefs, and/or another culture in its own civil war but not a 16-year-old in Canada (who can values. For example, terms sympathetically join as a Junior or Primary Reserve Applicant), it is Hutterites choose to live enough so that the culture appears to be a coherent likely because you are viewing this practice from the communally as colonies and meaningful design for perspective of the culture in which you were raised. and work on cooperative living. Sociologists use the term ethnocentrism to refer to the farms that are owned by Ethnocentrism: The tendency to believe that one’s cultural beliefs and prac- the entire group, sharing tendency to believe that tices are superior and should be used as the standard a distinct system of tradi- one’s cultural beliefs and practices are superior and to which other cultures are compared. tional beliefs concerning should be used as the Sudanese children often ended up in the military as religion, dress codes, and standard to which other an escape from extreme poverty or they were captured rules for conduct that is cultures are compared. during periods of civil war and forced to engage in unlike that of mainstream Subculture: A group combat or steal from civilians to support armed groups. society. Individuals can that can be differentiated Although this cultural practice was deemed inhumane belong to more than one from mainstream culture by its divergent traits by the United Nations and steps have been taken over subculture simultane- involving language, norms, the last several years to abolish the use of child sol- ously, and various subcul- beliefs, and/or values. diers in combat, many barriers exist for demobilized tures can exist within the CHAPTER 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 61 03_ch03.indd 61 4/9/21 4:40 AM  larger context of Canadian culture at any given time. report that they have a particular preference for Subcultures are identified by shared traits, which can Chinese, Italian, and Latin American/Mexican dishes include food preferences (vegans and vegetarians), (Gregoire, 2017). music interests (techno, Indie pop, and alternative rap), clothing and hairstyles (vintage fashion, man TIME TO REVIEW bun and beard, and fades), forms of body art (e.g., tat- toos and piercings), shared recreation (e.g., internet What two assumptions make up the groups), and even age (boomers, millennials, and Sapir–Whorf hypothesis? zoomers). In what ways do folkways differ from A counterculture is a type of subculture that mores? strongly opposes core aspects of the mainstream cul- ture. Hells Angels are classified as a counterculture How is nonverbal communication used because of their exclusive membership (e.g., full- to convey meaning? patch members must first be sponsored by a member Why is it important to use cultural and undergo a lengthy probational period where they relativism when viewing cultural must prove their worth by committing crimes), struc- practices? tural characteristics (e.g., each chapter has a presi- What is the difference between a dent, vice-president, enforcer, and road captain), and subculture and a counterculture? deep entrenchment in organized crime (e.g., drug smuggling/trafficking; illegal trafficking in arms, ammunition, and explosives; prostitution/human traf- ficking; extortion; murder; and money laundering) (Schneider, 2019). The hippies were another coun- terculture; in the 1960s, these youth joined together LO7 HOW IS CANADIAN to share their alternative value system, love of music, CULTURE UNIQUE? and drugs such as marijuana and LSD. Canadian cul- ture continues to include a blend of diverse groups THE ABUNDANCE OF CANADIAN and traditions coexisting in what sociologists describe as a “cultural mosaic.” SYMBOLS Counterculture: A type The many subcultural At the beginning of the chapter, you were asked what of subculture that strongly cuisines that make up the comes to mind when you think of Canadian culture. opposes central aspects of Canadian food landscape mainstream culture. Among other things, you probably thought of various today have their roots in symbols of the country, both material and nonmate- Symbol: An object, the diffusion of cultural rial. A symbol is an object, image, or event that rep- image, or event used to represent a particular traits across subcultures. resents a particular concept. For example, a heart is concept. Close to three quarters of regularly used as a symbol for love. Similarly, a flag is Canadians (72 percent) often used to symbolize a country. The Canadian flag, © THE CANADIAN PRESS/Justin Tang © StaceyL/shutterstock.com The Hells Angels motorcycle gang is an example of a counterculture that is deeply embedded in organized crime. An RCMP officer in dress uniform. 62 PART 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations 03_ch03.indd 62 4/9/21 4:40 AM  then, serves as an important, uniquely “Canadian” symbol. Similarly, the RCMP is recognized throughout the world as a symbol of Canada’s unique identity. The Maple Leaf is one of Canada’s more salient symbols, one that is recognized throughout the world. Canadians travelling abroad sometimes wear a Maple Leaf pin to identify themselves as Canadian or to dis- tinguish themselves from Americans. As Ferguson and © poemnist/shutterstock.com Ferguson (2001) put it in their playful book How to Be a Canadian, “the two central axioms of Canadian iden- tity, the mantra and motto of an entire nation [are]: a. I. Am. Canadian. b. I am not American” (p. 159). Other well-accepted symbols underscore Canada’s cul- tural diversity. For example, inukshuks (stone cairns built to look like people with their arms outstretched) Totem poles in Stanley Park, Vancouver, BC.