Chapter 21 - America in World War II (1941-1945) PDF

Chapter America and World War II 1941–1945 SECTION 1 Mobilizing for War SECTION 2 The Early Battles SECTION 3 Life on the Home Front SECTION 4 Pushing Back the Axis SECTION 5 The War Ends Allied troops land in Normandy on D-Day, 1944. 1941 United States...

Chapter America and World War II 1941–1945 SECTION 1 Mobilizing for War SECTION 2 The Early Battles SECTION 3 Life on the Home Front SECTION 4 Pushing Back the Axis SECTION 5 The War Ends Allied troops land in Normandy on D-Day, 1944. 1941 United States 1942 enters World War II Franklin D. Women’s Army Roosevelt bans Roosevelt Auxiliary Corps 1943 1933–1945 established Detroit race riots discrimination in defense industries Japanese American Zoot-suit riots in relocation ordered Los Angeles U.S. PRESIDENTS U.S. EVENTS 1941 1942 1943 WORLD EVENTS 1941 1942 1943 Japan attacks Japan captures the Philippines Germans defeated at Pearl Harbor Americans win Battle of Stalingrad Midway Allied forces land in Italy 712 Chapter 21 America and World War II  MAKING CONNECTIONS What Kinds of Sacrifices Does War Require? During World War II, millions of Americans enlisted in the armed forces, risking their lives in the struggle. On the home front, Americans also helped the war effort by giving up goods needed by the military and buying war bonds. Why do you think so many Americans volunteered to fight in World War II? Should civilians have to make sacrifices in wartime? Summarizing American Life During 1944 1945 Harry Truman World War II Make a Pocket Book Foldable Supreme Court rules in Franklin Roosevelt 1945– to summarize various aspects of daily life that Korematsu v. United States that dies in office; Japanese American relocation is Harry S. Truman World War II affected. constitutional becomes president Label the two pockets as Economic and Social. Include general effects as Social 1944 1945 well as specific programs Economic under each pocket. 1944 1945 Eisenhower leads U.S. Marines capture D-Day invasion Iwo Jima )JTUPSZ 0/-*/& Chapter Overview MacArthur’s forces United States drops Visit glencoe.com to preview Chapter 21. land in the Philippines atomic bomb on Japan Chapter 21 America and World War II 713 Section 1 Mobilizing for War Guide to Reading A fter World War I, America returned to isolationism. When the nation entered World War II in 1941, its armed forces ranked nineteenth in might, behind Big Ideas Economics and Society Americans the tiny European nation of Belgium. Three years later, quickly converted to a wartime econ- the United States was producing 40 percent of the omy to support the war effort. world’s arms. Content Vocabulary cost-plus (p. 716) disenfranchised (p. 719) Academic Vocabulary Converting the Economy vehicle (p. 717) MAIN Idea The United States quickly mobilized the economy to fight draft (p. 718) the war. HISTORY AND YOU Have you ever changed the way you performed a task People and Events to Identify in order to do it faster or more efficiently? What steps did you take to speed War Production Board (p. 717) things up? Read on to learn how the United States changed the way factories Office of War Mobilization (p. 717) produced goods during World War II. “Double V” campaign (p. 720) Tuskegee Airmen (p. 720) Shortly after 1:30 P.M. on December 7, 1941, Secretary of the Oveta Culp Hobby (p. 721) Navy Frank Knox phoned President Roosevelt at the White House. Women’s Army Corps (p. 721) “Mr. President,” Knox said, “it looks like the Japanese have attacked Pearl Harbor.” A few minutes later, Admiral Harold Stark, chief of Reading Strategy naval operations, phoned and confirmed the attack. Organizing Complete a graphic orga- Although President Roosevelt remained calm when he heard the nizer similar to the one below by filling news, he later expressed his concerns to his wife Eleanor: “I never in the agencies that the U.S. govern- wanted to have to fight this war on two fronts. We haven’t got the ment created to mobilize the nation Navy to fight in both the Atlantic and Pacific.... We will have to for war. build up the Navy and the Air Force and that will mean we will have to take a good many defeats before we can have a victory.” Government Agencies Although the difficulties of fighting a global war troubled the pres- Created to Mobilize the Economy ident, British prime minister Winston Churchill was not worried. Churchill knew that victory in modern war depended on a nation’s industrial power. He compared the American economy to a gigantic boiler: “Once the fire is lighted under it there is no limit to the power it can generate.” Churchill was right. The industrial output of the United States dur- ing the war astounded the rest of the world. American workers were twice as productive as German workers and five times more produc- tive than Japanese workers. In 1943 the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin toasted “American production, without which this war would have been lost.” American war production turned the tide in favor of the Allies. In less than four years, the United States and its allies achieved what no other group of nations had ever done—they fought and won a two-front war against two powerful military empires, forcing each to surrender. 714 Chapter 21 America and World War II The Arsenal of Democracy U.S. Output of Military Products 80,000 60,000 Products 40,000 20,000 Analyzing VISUALS 1. Determining Cause and Effect When did tank pro- 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 duction begin to drop? Why might this be so? Year 2. Making Connections How do you think the workers Combat aircraft Ships Tanks felt as they watched the tanks rolling out of the factory? Source: The Big ‘L’: American Logistics in World War II. The United States rapidly increased its war charge of buying equipment—began signing production after the attack on Pearl Harbor. contracts with American companies for new The expansion was possible in part because aircraft, ships, and equipment. the government had already begun mobilizing Roosevelt believed that government and the economy before the country entered the business had to work together to prepare for war. When the German blitzkrieg swept into war. He created the National Defense Advisory France in May 1940, President Roosevelt Committee to help mobilize the economy and declared a national emergency and announced asked several business leaders to serve on the a plan to build 50,000 warplanes a year. Two committee. The president and his advisers months later he asked Congress for $4 billion believed that giving industry an incentive to to build a “Two-Ocean” Navy. move quickly was the best way to rapidly Shocked by the success of the German mobilize the economy. As Henry Stimson, the attack, many Americans were willing to build new secretary of war, wrote in his diary: “If up the country’s defenses. By October 1940, you are going to try and go to war, or to Congress had increased the defense budget prepare for war, in a capitalist country, you to more than $17 billion. The Army-Navy have got to let business make money out of Munitions Board—the military agency in the process or business won’t work.” Chapter 21 America and World War II 715  Normally when the government needed military equipment, it would ask companies to American Industry bid for the contract, but that system was too slow in wartime. Instead of asking for bids, the Gets the Job Done government signed cost-plus contracts. The MAIN Idea Factories built tanks, airplanes, government agreed to pay a company what- trucks, and jeeps for military use, as well as safer ships. ever it cost to make a product plus a guaran- teed percentage of the costs as profit. HISTORY AND YOU Has a coach or instructor ever Under the cost-plus system, the more a challenged you to improve your speed or efficiency at a task? Read on to learn how American industry company produced and the faster it did the helped the war effort. work, the more money it would make. The sys- tem was not cheap, but it did get war materials By the fall of 1941, much had already been produced quickly and in quantity. done to prepare the economy for war, but it Cost-plus convinced many companies to con- was still only partially mobilized. Although vert to war production. Other firms, however, many companies were producing military could not afford to reequip their factories to make equipment, most still preferred to make con- military goods. To convince more companies to sumer goods. The Great Depression was end- convert, Congress gave new authority to the ing, demand was up, and sales were rising. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC). That The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, however, government agency, set up during the Depression, changed everything. A flood of orders by the could make loans to companies wanting to con- government for war materials began, and by vert their factories to war production. the summer of 1942, almost all major indus- Analyzing What government tries and some 200,000 companies had con- policies helped American industry to produce large verted to war production. Together they made quantities of war materials? the nation’s wartime “miracle” possible. Building the Liberty Ships PRIMARY SOURCE “I worked the graveyard shift 12:00–8:00 A.M. in the ship- yard. I took classes on how to weld. I had leather gloves, leather pants, big hood, goggles and a leather jacket. They put me forty feet down in the bottom of the ship to be a tacker. I filled the long seams of the cracks in the ship cor- ners full of hot lead and then brushed them good and you could see how pretty it was. The welders would come along and weld it so it would take the strong waves and deep water and heavy weight.” —Katie Grant, World War II riveter at Kaiser Richmond Shipyard, California 1. Interpreting Why would Ms. Grant have had to wear leather clothing? 2. Summarizing What was Ms. Grant’s job? Tanks Replace Cars keel up, parts were prefabricated and brought to the shipyard for assembly. The automobile industry was uniquely Kaiser’s shipyards built many different kinds suited to the mass production of military of ships, but they were best known for Liberty equipment. Automobile factories began pro- ships. The Liberty ship was the basic cargo ship ducing trucks, jeeps, and tanks. Mass produc- used during the war. Liberty ships were welded tion was critical in modern warfare, because instead of riveted. Although welded ships the country that could move troops and sup- tended to crack, Vice Admiral Emory Land, plies most quickly usually won the battle. As head of the U.S. Maritime Commission, pre- General George C. Marshall, chief of staff for ferred the Liberty ships: the United States Army, observed: PRIMARY SOURCE PRIMARY SOURCE “The greatest advantage the United States enjoyed “Every time a riveted ship goes into dock you have on the ground in the fighting was... the jeep and a lot of repairs to do. You do not have them in the two-and-a-half ton truck. These are the instru- welded ships.... On combat damage, comparing ments that moved and supplied United States the welded Liberty ships and others, everything is troops in battle, while the German army... in favor of the Liberty.... riveted ships are apt to depended on animal transport.... The United go to the bottom if they are bombed or mined or States, profiting from the mass production achieve- torpedoed. Never mind about the fractures or the ments of its automotive industry... had mobility cracks—the Liberty ships get into port.” that completely outclassed the enemy.” —from Miracle of World War II —quoted in Miracle of World War II When the war began, it took 244 days to Automobile factories did not just produce build the first Liberty ship. After Kaiser ship- vehicles. They also built artillery, rifles, mines, yards applied their mass production tech- helmets, pontoon bridges, and dozens of other niques, average production time dropped to pieces of military equipment. Henry Ford cre- 41 days. Kaiser’s shipyards built 30 percent of ated an assembly line for the enormous B-24 all American ships constructed during the bomber known as the “Liberator” at Willow war, including nearly 3,000 Liberty ships. Run Airport near Detroit. By the end of the war, the factory had built more than 8,600 air- craft. Overall, the auto industry produced The War Production Board nearly one-third of all military equipment As American companies converted to war manufactured during the war. production, many business leaders became frustrated with the mobilization process. Government agencies argued constantly about Building the Liberty Ships supplies and contracts and whose orders had Ford’s remarkable achievement in aircraft the highest priority. production was more than matched by Henry After Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt tried Kaiser’s shipyards. Henry Kaiser started in the to improve the system by creating the War construction industry, but when World War II Production Board (WPB). He gave the WPB began, Kaiser shifted from the construction the authority to set priorities and production industry to shipbuilding. goals and to control the distribution of raw German submarines were sinking American materials and supplies. Almost immediately, cargo ships at a terrifying rate. The United the WPB clashed with the military. Military States had to find a way to build cargo ships as agencies continued to sign contracts without quickly as possible. Kaiser believed that speed consulting with the WPB. Finally, in 1943, was more important than quality and that cost Roosevelt established the Office of War was less important than results. He spent Mobilization (OWM) to settle arguments whatever it took to get the job done quickly. To among the different agencies. save time, he applied techniques from the con- struction industry to shipbuilding. Instead of Explaining What military need building an entire ship in one place from the led to the production of Liberty ships? Chapter 21 America and World War II 717  Building an Army the first peacetime draft in American history. In September, Congress approved the draft by MAIN Idea African Americans and women a wide margin. slowly became part of the United States armed forces. HISTORY AND YOU Do you think the United States You’re in the Army Now should have a military draft? Read to learn about More than 60,000 men enlisted in the month the first peacetime draft in American history. after the attack on Pearl Harbor. At first, the flood of recruits overwhelmed the army’s train- Converting factories to war production was ing facilities. Many recruits had to live in tents only part of the mobilization process. To fight rather than barracks. The army also experi- and win the war, the United States also needed enced equipment shortages. Troops carried to build up its armed forces. sticks representing guns, threw stones simu- lating grenades, and practiced maneuvers with trucks labeled “TANK.” Creating an Army New recruits were initially sent to a recep- Within days of Germany’s attack on Poland tion center, where they were given physical in 1939, President Roosevelt expanded the exams and injections against smallpox and army to 227,000 soldiers. Before the spring of typhoid. The draftees were then issued uni- 1940, college students, unions, isolationists, forms, boots, and whatever equipment was and most members of Congress had opposed available. The clothing bore the label “G.I.,” a peacetime draft. Opinions changed after meaning “Government Issue,” which is why France surrendered to Germany in June 1940. American soldiers were called GIs. Two members of Congress introduced the After taking aptitude tests, recruits went to Selective Service and Training Act, a plan for basic training for eight weeks. They learned Creating an American Army U.S. Armed Forces, 1939–1946 Military personnel 10 8 Army (millions) 6 Navy 4 Marines 2 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 Year Source: Historical Statistics of the United States. PRIMARY SOURCE For many Americans, entering the army changed their perspective, as historian Carl Degler recalls: “Entrance into the Army in August, 1942, widened my horizons literally as well as experientially: for the first time I travelled beyond a 200 mile radius from Newark. I marvelled at the flatness of the prairie in Illinois.... Stops at posts in Miami Beach, Florida, and Richmond, ▲ Soldiers from a Mexican-American platoon train at Fort Benning Virginia, were my introduction to the American South.” in 1943. —from The History Teacher, vol. 23, 1990 718 Chapter 21 America and World War II how to handle weapons, load backpacks, read assigned them to construction and supply maps, pitch tents, and dig trenches. Trainees units. drilled and exercised constantly and learned Some African Americans did not want to how to work as a team. support the war. As one student at a black Basic training helped to break down barriers college noted: “The Army Jim Crows us.... between soldiers. Recruits came from all over Employers and labor unions shut us out. the country, and training together created a Lynchings continue. We are disenfranchised “special sense of kinship,”as one soldier noted.... and spat upon. What more could Hitler “The reason you storm the beaches is not do to us than that?” Despite the bitterness, patriotism or bravery. It’s that sense of not most African Americans agreed with African wanting to fail your buddies.” American writer Saunders Redding that they should support their country: A Segregated Army PRIMARY SOURCE Although basic training promoted unity, “There are many things about this war I do not like most recruits did not encounter Americans... yet I believe in the war.... We know that what- from every part of society. At the start of the ever the mad logic of [Hitler’s] New Order there is no war, the U.S. military was segregated. White hope for us under it. The ethnic theories of the Hitler recruits did not train alongside African ‘master folk’ admit of no chance of freedom.... Americans. African Americans had separate This is a war to keep [people] free. The struggle to barracks, latrines, mess halls, and recreational broaden and lengthen the road of freedom—our facilities. Once trained, African Americans own private and important war to enlarge freedom were organized into their own military units, here in America—will come later.... I believe in but white officers generally commanded them. this war because I believe in America. I believe in Most military leaders also wanted to keep what America professes to stand for....” African American soldiers out of combat and —quoted in America at War A Segregated Army Although the U.S. armed forces were segregated, discrimination did not prevent minority groups from performing with courage. Two of the best-known examples are the Tuskegee Airmen (right), comprised of African American volunteers, and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team (below), made up of Japanese American volunteers. The 450 Tuskegee Airmen fought in North Africa, Sicily, and Italy. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team became the most decorated unit in U.S. history. Analyzing VISUALS 1. Identifying In what year did the army gain the most personnel? Why do you think that is the case? 2. Evaluating What do the expressions on the faces of the Tuskegee Airmen convey? Chapter 21 America and World War II 719  Pushing for “Double V” Many African In early 1941 the air force created its first )JTUPSZ 0/-*/& American leaders combined patriotism with African American unit, the 99th Pursuit Student Skill Activity To learn protest. In 1941 the National Urban League Squadron. The pilots trained in Tuskegee, how to conduct an asked its members to encourage African Alabama, and became known as the Tuskegee interview, visit Americans to join the war effort. It also asked Airmen. In April 1943, after General Davis glencoe.com them to make plans for building a better soci- urged the military to put African Americans and complete the ety in the United States after the war. The into combat as soon as possible, the squadron Skill activity. Pittsburgh Courier, a leading African American was sent to the Mediterranean. Lieutenant newspaper, launched the “Double V” cam- Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., General Davis’s paign. The campaign urged African Americans son, commanded the squadron and helped to support the war to achieve a double vic- win the battle of Anzio in Italy. tory—over both Hitler’s racism abroad and the In late 1943 Colonel Davis took command racism at home. of three new squadrons that had trained at Tuskegee. Known as the 332nd Fighter Group, African Americans in Combat Under these squadrons were ordered to protect pressure from African American leaders, American bombers as they flew to their tar- President Roosevelt ordered the army, air force, gets. The 332nd Fighter Group flew 200 such navy, and marines to recruit African Americans, missions and did not lose a single member to and he told the army to put African Americans enemy aircraft. into combat. He also promoted Colonel African Americans also performed well in Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., the highest-ranking the army. The all–African American 761st Tank African American officer, to the rank of briga- Battalion was commended for its service dier general. during the Battle of the Bulge. Although the Women in World War II About 400,000 American women played a major role in the military side of the war effort, if not in direct combat. Sixteen American women were awarded the Purple Heart for being injured as a result of enemy action. More than 400 American military women lost their lives. ▲ In this 1943 photo, Nancy Nesbit checks with the con- trol tower from her plane at Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas, where the Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron of the U.S. Army ▲ A doctor and army nurse tend to a patient at a trained. U.S. Army hospital in Leyte in the Philippines. Analyzing VISUALS 1. Inferring Why might the military have been reluctant to allow women in combat? 2. Evaluating What does the top photo suggest about conditions in military hospitals? 720 Chapter 21 America and World War II military did not end all segregation during the war, it did inte- grate military bases in 1943 and steadily expanded the role of African Americans within the armed forces. These successes Section 1 REVIEW paved the way for President Truman’s decision to fully integrate the military in 1948. Vocabulary Other Minorities in the Military Japanese Americans were 1. Explain the significance of: cost-plus, not allowed to serve in the military at first. As the war progressed, War Production Board, Office of War however, second-generation Japanese Americans served in the Mobilization, disenfranchised, “Double V” 100th Infantry Battalion and the 442nd Regimental Combat campaign, Tuskegee Airmen, Oveta Culp Team. Almost half had been in internment camps in the American Hobby, Women’s Army Corps. Southwest. Together these units became the most decorated in the history of the United States military. Many Mexican Americans Main Ideas had joined the National Guard during the 1930s and served on 2. Describing How did Congress sup- the front lines. Most minorities were allowed only in noncombat port factories that converted to war positions, such as kitchen workers. Native Americans, who were production? regarded as fierce warriors, were an exception to that policy. One- third of all healthy Native American men aged 18–50 served dur- 3. Analyzing What role did the OWM play ing the war. in the war production effort? 4. Explaining How were minorities dis- criminated against in the military? Women Join the Armed Forces Women joined the armed forces, as they had done during Critical Thinking World War I. The army enlisted women for the first time, although 5. Big Ideas How did American industry they were barred from combat. Many jobs in the army were rally behind the war effort? administrative and clerical. Assigning women to these jobs made more men available for combat. 6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer like Congress first allowed women in the military in May 1942, the one below to list the challenges facing when it established the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) the United States as it mobilized for war. and appointed Oveta Culp Hobby, an official with the War Department, to serve as its first director. Although pleased about Challenges to the establishment of the WAAC, many women were unhappy Mobilization that it was an auxiliary corps and not part of the regular army. A little over a year later, the army replaced the WAAC with the Women’s Army Corps (WAC). Director Hobby was assigned the 7. Analyzing Visuals Look again at the rank of colonel.“You have a debt and a date,” Hobby explained to photograph on page 716. What do you those training to be the nation’s first women officers. “A debt to observe about the construction process? democracy, a date with destiny.” As early as 1939, pilot Jackie Cochran had written to Eleanor Writing About History Roosevelt suggesting that women pilots could aid the war effort. 8. Expository Writing Interview a World The following year, Nancy Love wrote to army officials to suggest War II veteran or research your community that women be allowed to deliver planes. (The air force was not during the war. How did industry rally yet a separate branch of the military.) Training programs began in behind the war effort? Write a one-page 1942; the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) began the next report to summarize your findings. year. Although the WASPs were no longer needed after 1944, about 300 women pilots made more than 12,000 deliveries of 77 different kinds of planes. The Coast Guard, the navy, and the marines quickly followed the army and set up their own women’s units. In addition to serv- ing in these new organizations, another 68,000 women served as )JTUPSZ 0/-*/& nurses in the army and navy. Study Central To review this section, go to Summarizing How did the status of women and glencoe.com and click on Study Central. African Americans in the armed forces change during the war? 721 Section 2 The Early Battles Guide to Reading T he early battles of the war on both fronts required changes in strategy from all sides. In the Pacific, the Battle of Midway was a major turning point against the Big Ideas Individual Action Several key people Japanese, while the Battle of the Atlantic and the Battle made decisions that changed the course of Stalingrad made it clear that Germany would not win of the war. the war. Content Vocabulary periphery (p. 725) convoy system (p. 727) Holding the Line Against Japan Academic Vocabulary MAIN Idea The Japanese continued to win victories in the Pacific until the code (p. 724) Battle of Midway. target (p. 726) HISTORY AND YOU Have you ever continued toward a goal even though People and Events to Identify the odds were against you? Read on to learn about the early battles in the Pacific. Chester Nimitz (p. 722) Douglas MacArthur (p. 722) Bataan Death March (p. 723) Admiral Chester Nimitz, the commander of the United States Corregidor (p. 723) Navy in the Pacific, began planning operations against the Japanese James Doolittle (p. 723) Navy. Although the Japanese had badly damaged the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, the American aircraft carriers, which were on a mis- Reading Strategy sion at sea, were safe. The United States had several carriers in the Organizing Complete a time line simi- Pacific, and Nimitz was determined to use them. In the days just after lar to the one below to record the major Pearl Harbor, however, he could do little to stop Japan’s advance into battles discussed and the victor in each. Southeast Asia. 1942 1943 The Fall of the Philippines A few hours after bombing Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attacked American airfields in the Philippines. Two days later, they landed troops. The American and Filipino forces defending the Philippines were badly outnumbered. Their commander, General Douglas MacArthur, retreated to the Bataan Peninsula. Using the peninsula’s rugged terrain, the troops held out for more than three months. By March, in desperation, the troops ate cavalry horses and mules. The lack of food and supplies, along with diseases such as malaria, scurvy, and dysentery, took their toll. The women of the Army Nurse Corps worked on Bataan in primitive conditions. Patients slept in the open air. One nurse, Rose Meier, reported, “If we needed more room, we got our axes and chopped some bamboo trees down.” Realizing MacArthur’s capture would demoralize the American people, President Roosevelt ordered the general to evacuate to Australia. MacArthur promised, “I came through, and I shall return.” On April 9, 1942, the weary defenders of the Bataan Peninsula finally surrendered. Nearly 78,000 prisoners of war were forced 722 Chapter 21 America and World War II  120°E 120°30’E LUZON Camp Private Leon Beck O’Donnell The Bataan Death March, April 1942 was taken pris- oner when Bataan 15°N surrendered and took part in the Bataan Bataan Death South Peninsula China Sea Manila March for 13 days Bay before escaping: Bataan Death 14°30’N March route PRIMARY SOURCE “They’d halt us in front of these big artesian wells... so we could see the water and they wouldn’t let us have any. Anyone who would make a break for water would be shot or bayoneted. Then they were left there. Finally, it got so bad further along the road that you never got away from the stench of death. There were bodies laying all along the road in various degrees of decomposi- tion—swollen, burst open, maggots crawling by the thousands....” —from Death March: 1. Making Inferences Why did the Japanese captors The Survivors of Bataan stop at the wells? 2. Hypothesizing Why might the captors treat the cap- tives as they did on this march? to march—sick, exhausted, and starving— In early 1942, a military planner suggested 65 miles (105 km) to a Japanese prison camp. replacing the carrier’s usual short-range bomb- Almost ten thousand troops died on this ers with long-range B-25 bombers that could march, which was later called the Bataan attack from farther away. The only problem Death March. Sixty-six women nurses were was that, although B-25s could take off from a also captured and sent to the University of carrier, the bombers could not land on its short Santo Tomas in Manila. They remained there— deck. After attacking Japan, they would have to with 11 navy nurses and some 3,000 Allied land in China. civilians—until early in 1945. President Roosevelt put Lieutenant Colonel Although the troops in the Bataan Peninsula James Doolittle in command of the mission surrendered, a small force held out on the to bomb Tokyo. At the end of March, a crane island of Corregidor in Manila Bay. Finally, loaded sixteen B-25s onto the aircraft carrier in May 1942, Corregidor surrendered. The Hornet. The next day, the Hornet headed west Philippines had fallen to the Japanese. across the Pacific. On April 18, American bombs fell on Japan for the first time. The Doolittle Raid on Tokyo Even before the Philippines fell, President Roosevelt was searching for a way to raise the Japan Changes Strategy morale of the American people. He wanted to While Americans rejoiced in the air force’s bomb Tokyo, but American planes could reach success, Japanese leaders were aghast at Tokyo only if an aircraft carrier brought them the raid. Those bombs could have killed the close enough. Unfortunately, Japanese ships in emperor, who was revered as a god. The the North Pacific prevented carriers from get- Doolittle raid convinced Japanese leaders to ting near Japan. change their strategy. Chapter 21 America and World War II 723  Before the raid, the Japanese navy had dis- team of code breakers based in Hawaii had agreed about the next step. The officers in already broken the Japanese navy’s secret code charge of the navy’s planning wanted to cut for conducting operations. American supply lines to Australia by captur- In March 1942, decoded Japanese messages ing the south coast of New Guinea. The alerted the United States to the Japanese attack commander of the fleet, Admiral Yamamoto, on New Guinea. In response, Admiral Nimitz wanted to attack Midway Island—the last sent two carriers, the Yorktown and the American base in the North Pacific west of Lexington, to intercept the Japanese in the Hawaii. Yamamoto believed that attacking Coral Sea. There, in early May, carriers from Midway would lure the American fleet into both sides launched all-out airstrikes against battle and enable his fleet to destroy it. each other. Although the Japanese sank the After Doolittle’s raid, the Japanese war plan- Lexington and badly damaged the Yorktown, the ners dropped their opposition to Yamamoto’s American attacks prevented the Japanese from idea. The American fleet had to be destroyed to landing on New Guinea’s south coast and kept protect Tokyo from bombing. The attack on the supply lines to Australia open. New Guinea would still go ahead, but only three aircraft carriers were assigned to the mis- sion. All of the other carriers were ordered to The Battle of Midway assault Midway. Back at Pearl Harbor, the code-breaking team now learned of the plan to attack Midway. With so many ships at sea, Admiral Yamamoto The Battle of the Coral Sea transmitted the plans for the Midway attack by The Japanese believed that they could safely radio, using the same code the Americans had proceed with two attacks at once because they already cracked. thought their operations were secret. What the Admiral Nimitz had been waiting for the Japanese did not know was that an American opportunity to ambush the Japanese fleet. He The Battle of Midway, 1942 Course of Enterprise and Hornet Course of Yorktown 9 June 6, 1:31 P.M. 8 June 4, 5:01 P.M.
Yorktown Japanese submarine fliers join Enterprise attack on I-168 torpedoes the the Hiryu, setting Yorktown, which sinks it ablaze. the next morning. Hiryu sinks Course of Japanese fleet 7 Yorktown sinks June 4, noon. Akagi sinks Soryu sinks Planes from the Hiryu Kaga sinks attack U.S. carriers. June 4, Yorktown hit. 6 10:22-10:28 A.M. The ship is abandoned U.S. Dive-bombers but remains afloat. score direct hits on 1 June 4, 4:30 A.M.
Kaga, Akagi, and Soryu. U.S. Dauntless Japanese carriers launch dive-bomber 108 warplanes to strike 2 June 4, 6:16 A.M. U.S. base at Midway. U.S. fighters clash with attackers. 5 June 4, 9:17 A.M. Japanese planes return. 4 June 4, 7:08 A.M.
Fleet turns to engage U.S. fliers from Midway begin U.S. carriers. attacking Japanese fleet..IDWAY
Line of U.S. submarines 3 June 4, *SLANDS 6:30 A.M. 64 stationed 170 miles  Japanese begin from Midway.  ,URE
"TOLL bombing Midway. N    64    E   W S U.S. actions Japanese actions 724 Chapter 21 immediately ordered carriers to take up posi- tions near Midway. Unaware that they were Stopping the Germans heading into an ambush, the Japanese launched MAIN Idea The Allies defeated Germany in their aircraft against Midway on June 4, 1942. Africa and in the Battle of the Atlantic. The The Americans were ready. The Japanese ran Soviet victory at Stalingrad was a turning point of the war. into a blizzard of antiaircraft fire, and 38 planes were shot down. HISTORY AND YOU Have you ever tried some- As the Japanese prepared a second wave to thing simple before attempting a more challenging problem? Read on to learn about the Allied strategy attack Midway, aircraft from the American for attacking the Germans. carriers Hornet, Yorktown, and Enterprise launched a counterattack. The American planes caught the Japanese carriers with fuel, bombs, In 1942 Allied forces began to win victories and aircraft exposed on their flight decks. in Europe as well. Almost from the moment Within minutes, three Japanese carriers were the United States entered the war, Joseph reduced to burning wrecks. A fourth was sunk Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, urged a few hours later, and Admiral Yamamoto President Roosevelt to open a second front ordered his remaining ships to retreat. in Europe. Stalin appreciated the lend-lease The Battle of Midway was a turning point in supplies that the United States had sent, but the war. The Japanese navy lost four large car- the Soviets were doing most of the fighting. riers—the heart of its fleet. Just six months If British and American troops opened a after Pearl Harbor, the United States had second front by attacking Germany from the stopped the Japanese advance. The victory was west, it would take pressure off the Soviet not without cost, however. The battle killed Union. 362 Americans and 3,057 Japanese. Roosevelt wanted to get American troops into battle in Europe, but Prime Minister Explaining Why was the United Churchill urged caution. He did not believe the States able to ambush the Japanese at Midway? United States and Great Britain were ready to launch a full-scale invasion of Europe. Instead, Churchill wanted to attack the periphery, or edges, of the German empire. Roosevelt agreed, and in July 1942, he ordered the inva- sion of Morocco and Algeria—two French ter- ritories indirectly under German control. The Struggle for North Africa Roosevelt decided to invade Morocco and Algeria for two reasons. First, the invasion would give the army some experience without requiring a lot of troops. More important, once American troops were in North Africa, they would be able to help the British troops fight the Germans in Egypt. Analyzing VISUALS Great Britain needed Egypt because the Suez Canal was located there. Most of Britain’s 1. Interpreting When did Japan launch the empire, including India, Hong Kong, Singa- attack on Midway? )JTUPSZ 0/-*/& pore, Malaya, and Australia, sent supplies Student Web 2. Drawing Conclusions Why were aircraft to Britain through the canal. General Erwin Activity Visit carriers so vital to the war in the Pacific? Rommel—a brilliant leader whose success glencoe.com earned him the nickname “Desert Fox” and complete the See StudentWorksTM activity on America Plus or glencoe.com. —commanded the German forces in the area, and World War II. known as the “Afrika Korps.” Chapter 21 America and World War II 725 El Alamein and Stalingrad, November 1942 Just as the Battle of Midway was a turn- ing point in the war in the Pacific, so too were the battles of El Alamein in North Africa and Stalingrad in Europe. The British victory over German General Rommel at El Alamein secured the Suez Canal and kept the Germans away from the oil resources of the Middle East. Germany’s defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad was a major turning point by ending Hitler’s plans to dominate Europe. ▲ A Soviet gun crew fights ▲ A British tank successfully against Nazi forces in navigates a wide ditch outside Stalingrad. Only one day a town in North Africa. after the Nazis publicly boasted that the city would fall to them, the Red Army turned the tide of battle. Analyzing VISUALS 1. Assessing How do you think the environment made combat at El Alamein and Stalingrad challenging? 2. Evaluating Why were the battles shown so important to the Allies? Although the British forced Rommel to general who led the attack and put Patton in retreat in November 1942, after a 12-day battle command. Together, the American and British against the coastal city of El Alamein near the forces finally pushed the Germans back. On Suez Canal, German forces remained a serious May 13, 1943, the last German troops in North threat. Later that month, Americans under Africa surrendered. General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s command invaded North Africa. He planned to trap Rommel between two Allied forces. The The Battle of the Atlantic American forces in Morocco, led by General As American and British troops fought the George Patton, quickly captured the city of German army in North Africa, the war against Casablanca, while those in Algeria seized the German submarines in the Atlantic Ocean cities of Oran and Algiers. The Americans then intensified. After Germany declared war on the headed east into Tunisia, while British forces United States, German submarines entered headed west into Libya. American coastal waters. American cargo ships When the American troops advanced into were easy targets, especially at night when the the mountains of western Tunisia, they had to glow from the cities in the night sky silhouetted fight the German army for the first time. They the vessels. To protect the ships, cities on the did not do well. At the Battle of Kasserine Pass, East Coast dimmed their lights every evening. the Americans were outmaneuvered and out- People also put up special “blackout curtains” fought. They suffered roughly 7,000 casualties and, if they had to drive at night, did so with and lost nearly 200 tanks. Eisenhower fired the their headlights off. 726 Chapter 21 America and World War II  By August 1942, German submarines had sunk about 360 American ships along the East Coast. So many oil tankers were sunk that gasoline and fuel oil had to be rationed. To Section 2 REVIEW keep oil flowing, the government built the first long-distance oil pipeline, stretching some 1,250 miles (2,010 km) from Texas to Pennsylvania. Vocabulary The loss of so many ships convinced the U.S. Navy to set up a 1. Explain the significance of: Chester convoy system. Under this system, cargo ships traveled in groups Nimitz, Douglas MacArthur, Bataan Death escorted by navy warships. The convoy system improved the situ- March, Corregidor, James Doolittle, periph- ation dramatically. It made it much more difficult for a submarine ery, convoy system. to torpedo a cargo ship and escape without being attacked. The spring of 1942 marked the high point of the German sub- Main Ideas marine campaign. In May and June alone, over 1.2 million tons of 2. Explaining Briefly explain the causes shipping were sunk. Yet in those same two months, American and and effects of the effort to defeat the British shipyards built more than 1.1 million tons of new shipping. Japanese in 1942. From July 1942 onward, American shipyards produced more ships than German submarines managed to sink. At the same time, 3. Analyzing Why did Churchill want to American airplanes and warships began to use new technology, defeat the Germans in Africa before stag- including radar, sonar, and depth charges, to locate and attack sub- ing a European invasion? marines. As the new technology began to take its toll on German submarines, the Battle of the Atlantic turned in favor of the Allies. Critical Thinking 4. Big Ideas Explain the significance of one person whose actions made a differ- The Battle of Stalingrad ence in the war. In the spring of 1942, before the Battle of the Atlantic turned 5. Organizing Use a graphic organizer like against Germany, Adolf Hitler was very confident that he would the one below to list the reasons that the win the war. The German army was ready to launch a new offen- Battle of Midway is considered a turning sive to knock the Soviets out of the war. point of the war. Hitler was convinced that only by destroying the Soviet econ- Battle of Midway omy could he defeat the Soviet Union. In May 1942, he ordered his army to capture strategic oil fields, factories, and farmlands in southern Russia and Ukraine. The city of Stalingrad, which con- 6. Analyzing Visuals Look again at the trolled the Volga River and was a major railroad junction, was the map on page 724. How long did the Battle key to the attack. If the German army captured Stalingrad, they of Midway last? would cut off the Soviets from the resources they needed to stay in the war. Writing About History When German troops entered Stalingrad in mid-September, 7. Expository Writing Much of the course Stalin ordered his troops to hold the city at all costs. Retreat was of wars is determined by the need for sup- forbidden. The Germans were forced to fight from house to house, ply lines to remain open. Write a brief losing thousands of soldiers in the process. They were not essay explaining how this need shaped equipped to fight in the bitter cold, but Soviet troops had quilted early battles in which the United States undersuits, felt boots, fur hats, and white camouflaged oversuits. was involved. On November 23, Soviet reinforcements arrived and sur- rounded Stalingrad, trapping almost 250,000 German troops. When the battle ended in February 1943, some 91,000 Germans had surrendered, although only 5,000 of them survived the Soviet prison camps and returned home after the war. Both sides lost nearly half a million soldiers each. The Battle of Stalingrad was a major turning point in the war. Just as the Battle of Midway put the Japanese on the defensive for the rest of the war, the Battle of )JTUPSZ 0/-*/& Stalingrad put the Germans on the defensive as well. Study Central To review this section, go to Describing How did the United States begin winning glencoe.com and click on Study Central. the Battle of the Atlantic? 727 Section 3 Life on the Home Front Guide to Reading A lthough women and African Americans gained new work opportunities, Latinos and Japanese Americans faced violence in American cities. To assist Big Ideas Trade, War, and Migration During with the war effort, the government controlled wages World War II, Americans faced demands and prices, rationed goods, encouraged recycling, and and new challenges at home. sold bonds. Content Vocabulary Sunbelt (p. 730) zoot suit (p. 732) Women and Minorities victory suit (p. 732) rationing (p. 734) Gain Ground victory garden (p. 735) MAIN Idea With many men on active military duty, women and minorities found factory and other jobs open to them. Academic Vocabulary coordinate (p. 731) HISTORY AND YOU Do you remember reading about the unequal treat- justify (p. 732) ment of African American soldiers in World War I? Read on to learn how desegregation of the military began in World War II. People and Events to Identify A. Philip Randolph (p. 730) As American troops fought their first battles against the Germans Bracero Program (p. 730) and Japanese, the war began dramatically changing American society Great Migration (p. 731) at home. In contrast to the devastation that large parts of Europe and Office of Price Administration (p. 734) Asia experienced, American society gained some benefits from World War II. The war finally ended the Great Depression. Mobilizing the Reading Strategy economy created almost 19 million new jobs and nearly doubled the Organizing Complete a graphic orga- average family’s income. For Robert Montgomery, a worker at an nizer listing opportunities for women Ohio machine tool plant, “one of the most important things that and African Americans before and after came out of World War II was the arrival of the working class at the war. Evaluate what progress was a new status level in this society.... The war integrated into the still needed after the war. mainstream a whole chunk of society that had been living on Opportunities the edge.” Before War After War Still Needed The improvement in the economy did not come without cost. Women American families had to move to where the defense factories were African located. Housing conditions were terrible. The pressures and preju- Americans dices of the era led to strikes, race riots, and rising juvenile delin- quency. Goods were rationed and taxes were higher than ever before. Workers were earning more money, but they were also working an average of 90 hours per week. Despite the hardships, James Covert, whose mother owned a grocery store during the war, was probably right when he said that the war “changed our lifestyle and more important, our outlook.... There was a feeling toward the end of the war that we were moving into a new age of prosperity.” When the war began, American defense factories wanted to hire white men. With so many men in the military, however, there simply were not enough white men to fill all of the jobs. Under pressure to produce, employers began to recruit women and minorities. 728 Chapter 21 America and World War II Women Working in the Defense Plants At left, a riveter works on a bomber in Fort Worth, Texas. Posters such as those above and to the right encouraged women to participate in the war effort. Women Working 20 Labor force (millions) 18 16 14 Analyzing VISUALS 1. Listing During what years did women’s employment out- 40 42 44 46 side the home hit its highest levels? 19 19 19 19 Source: Historical Statistics of the United States. 2. Analyzing How are the women portrayed in the posters? Women in the Defense Plants served in the marines. Images of Rosie appeared on posters, in newspapers, and in magazines. During the Great Depression, many people Eventually 2.5 million women worked in ship- believed married women should not work out- yards, aircraft factories, and other manufactur- side the home, especially if they took jobs that ing plants. Working in a factory changed the could go to men trying to support their fami- perspectives of many middle-class women like lies. Most working women were young, single, Inez Sauer: and employed in traditional female jobs such as domestic work or teaching. The wartime labor shortage, however, forced factories to PRIMARY SOURCE recruit married women for industrial jobs tra- “I learned that just because you’re a woman and ditionally reserved for men. have never worked is no reason you can’t learn. Although the government hired nearly The job really broadened me.... I had always been 4 million women, primarily for clerical jobs, in a shell; I’d always been protected. But at Boeing the women working in the factories captured I found a freedom and an independence I had the public’s imagination. The great symbol of never known. After the war I could never go back the campaign to hire women was “Rosie the to playing bridge again, being a clubwoman.... Riveter,” a character from a popular song by when I knew there were things you could use your the Four Vagabonds. The lyrics told of Rosie, mind for. The war changed my life completely.” who worked in a factory while her boyfriend —quoted in Eyewitness to World War II Chapter 21 America and World War II 729  By the end of the war, the number of work- ing women had increased from 12.9 million A Nation on to 18.8 million. Although most women were laid off or left their jobs voluntarily after the Move the war, their success permanently changed MAIN Idea Millions of Americans relocated dur- American attitudes about women in the ing the war to take factory jobs or to settle in less prejudiced areas. workplace. HISTORY AND YOU Has someone in your family moved because of a job transfer? Read on to find out about relocations that resulted from the war. African Americans Demand War Work Although factories were hiring women, they The wartime economy created millions of resisted hiring African Americans. Frustrated new jobs, but the Americans who wanted these by the situation, A. Philip Randolph, the jobs did not always live near the factories. To head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car get to the jobs, 15 million Americans moved Porters—a major union for African American during the war. The Midwest assembly plants railroad workers—decided to take action. and Northeast and Northwest shipyards He informed President Roosevelt that he attracted many workers. Most Americans, was organizing “from ten to fifty thousand however, headed west and south in search of [African Americans] to march on Washington jobs. in the interest of securing jobs... in national The growth of southern California and the defense and... integration into the military expansion of cities in the Deep South created and naval forces.” a new industrial region—the Sunbelt. For the In response, Roosevelt issued Executive first time since the Industrial Revolution began Order 8802, on June 25, 1941. The order declared, “there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, A Nation on the Move creed, color, or national origin.” To enforce the order, the president created the Fair During the war, millions of Americans flocked to Employment Practices Commission—the first the cities to work in factories. Many immigrants civil rights agency the federal government had stayed on after the war to become citizens. established since the Reconstruction Era. Populations of Northern cities became more mixed, permanently increasing the populations of those regions. Mexican Farmworkers American citizens were not the only ones who gained in the wartime economy. In 1942 the federal government arranged for Mexican farmworkers to help with the harvest in the Southwest. The laborers were part of the Bracero Program. Bracero is a Spanish word meaning “worker.” More than 200,000 Mexicans came to help harvest fruit and vege- tables. Many also helped to build and maintain railroads. The Bracero Program continued until 1964. Migrant farmworkers thus became an important part of the Southwest’s agricultural system. Describing How did mobilizing the economy help end the Depression? 730 Chapter 21 America and World War II  in the United States, the South and West led the way in manufacturing and urbanization. Racism Leads to Violence African Americans left the South in large numbers during World War I, but this “Great The Housing Crisis Migration,” as historians refer to it, slowed In many ways, the most difficult task facing during the Great Depression. When jobs in cities with war industries was where to put the war factories opened up for African Americans thousands of workers arriving in their com- during World War II, the Great Migration munities. Tent cities and parks filled with tiny resumed. In the crowded cities of the North trailers sprang up. Landlords began renting and West, however, African Americans were “hot beds.” The worker paid 25 cents for often met with suspicion and intolerance. eight hours in the bed, then went to work Sometimes these attitudes led to violence. while the bed was rented to another worker. The worst racial violence of the war erupted Anticipating the housing crisis, Congress in Detroit on Sunday, June 20, 1943. The had passed the Lanham Act in 1940. The act weather that day was sweltering. To cool off, provided $150 million for housing. In 1942 nearly 100,000 people crowded into Belle Isle, President Roosevelt created the National a park on the Detroit River. Gangs of white Housing Agency (NHA) to coordinate all gov- and African American teenage girls began ernment housing programs. By 1943, those fighting. These fights triggered others, and a programs had been allocated over $1.2 billion. full-scale riot erupted across the city. By the Although prefabricated public housing had time the violence ended, 25 African Americans tiny rooms, thin walls, poor heating, and almost and 9 whites had been killed. Despite the no privacy, it was better than no housing at all. appalling violence in Detroit, African American Nearly 2 million people lived in government- leaders remained committed to their “Double V” built housing during the war. campaign. Major Cities, 1940 and 1947 Migration in the United States, 1940–1950 10 1940 1947 8.7 9.2 Population (millions) 8 Seattle 73,000 Portland 338,000 NORTHEAST 6 3.9 3 8 5, 0 0 0 NORTH 3 1 9, 0 0 0 4 3.3 CENTRAL 2.9 2.2 2.7 2.8 Detroit 297,00 1.4 1.9 0 2 1,188,000 Chicago New York WEST City 0 0 San Francisco 0 614,000 ,00 ,00 Denver Washington, 427 nd – 44 9 A D.C. A PA 1,113,000 I Y M kla isco ,C C ,N ia, s, it, rk ele