Ecosystem Dynamics Chapter 2 (PDF)

ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS CHAPTER 2 REMINDER: This material is exclusive for this class. SHARING, COPYING, OR REPRODUCING ANY PART OF IT IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN OBJECTIVES: At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to: descri...

ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS CHAPTER 2 REMINDER: This material is exclusive for this class. SHARING, COPYING, OR REPRODUCING ANY PART OF IT IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN OBJECTIVES: At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to: describe an ecosystem and give some examples enumerate the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem differentiate the structural and functional components of an ecosystem; trace the flow of energy in an ecosystem; discuss the laws of thermodynamics; illustrate a food chain, food web and trophic levels; and describe the major types of ecosystems and biomes  The system resulting from the integration of all the living and nonliving factors of the environment. (Sir Arthur G. Tansley, 1935 Source: https://byjus.com/biology/ecosystem/ ECOSYSTEM  Ecosystem is defined as any unit that includes all the organisms, i.e., the community in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and material cycles, i.e., exchange of materials between living and non-living, within the Source: https://byjus.com/biology/ecosystem/ system. (Odum, 1974) ECOSYSTEM  The components of an ecosystem can be broadly categorized into biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) elements COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM Source: https://collegedunia.com/exams/components-of- ecosystem-science-articleid-397  These are the living organisms within an ecosystem and can be categorized into different trophic levels Producers (Autotrophs) ✓ produce their own food ✓ They form the base of the food web Created with BioRender.com Consumers (Heterotrophs) ✓ rely on other living organisms for food ✓ Could be divided into primary, secondary, tertiary consumers Decomposers (Detritivores) ✓ break down dead organic matter and recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem BIOTIC COMPONENTS the non-living physical and chemical factors that influence the environment and the living organisms within it. Climate Soil Water Light Wind Nutrients Image source: By Gabi Slizewska Topography ABIOTIC COMPONENTS  Refers to the spatial relations of an ecosystem's elements. STRUCTURE Source: https://quizlet.com/198594253/tropical-forest-terms-flash-cards/  The complex three-dimensional structure of a forest creates vertical gradients in abiotic conditions such as wind, light, humidity, and temperature which have a strong influence on patterns of diversity Studies have found stratification to be positively correlated with Birds - foliage density Bats - degree of canopy openness small mammals - canopy cover and microhabitat distribution (Basham et al., 2023) Image source: https://www.dkfindout.com/ STRUCTURE  Epipelagic Zone (Sunlight Zone) - most visible light can penetrate this layer, making it the warmest of all layers Mesopelagic Zone (Twilight Zone) - Only faint sunlight reaches this zone Bathypelagic Zone (Midnight Zone) - complete absence of light Abyssopelagic Zone (The Abyss) - it is the pitch-black bottom layer of the ocean as no sunlight reaches this layer Hadalpelagic Zone (The Trenches) - the ocean’s deepest zone Source: https://www.sciencefacts.net/layers-of-the- ocean.html STRUCTURE  The functions of an ecosystem include transformation, circulation, and accumulation of matter and flow of energy through the medium of living organisms and their activities and through natural physical processes (Van Dyne, 1966) FUNCTIONS  Biogeochemical cycle, any of the natural pathways by which essential elements of living matter are circulated Refers to the consideration of the biological, geological, and chemical aspects of each cycle. https://www.britannica.com/science/biogeochemical-cycle FUNCTIONS  ENERGY FLOW It describes how energy is captured, transformed, and utilized by living organisms in an ecosystem As energy flows through the food chain, a significant amount is lost at each trophic level, primarily as heat due to metabolic processes Image prepared by Maria Victoria Gonzaga for Biology Online. FUNCTIONS  The energy is produced by the autotrophs, as they have photosynthetic pigments to harness the sunlight into chemical energy via photosynthesis. On average, only about 10 percent of energy stored as biomass in a trophic level is passed from one level to the next. FUNCTIONS  LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS IN ECOSYSTEM The energy flow in an ecosystem is governed by the first two laws of thermodynamics First Law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another FUNCTIONS  LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS IN ECOSYSTEM The energy flow in an ecosystem is governed by the first two laws of thermodynamics Second Law of thermodynamics: The entropy of a system increases over time In any energy conversion, the amount of useable energy at the end of the process is always less than the amount of energy https://dhiraj42.blogspot.com/2016/06/laws-of-thermodynamics.html available at the start FUNCTIONS  Trophic structure refers to the division of biomass among different levels in a food chain, which is influenced by both the flow of energy and nutrients from primary producers and the consumption of prey by predators. (Encyclopedia of Ecology, 2008) TROPHIC STRUCTURE  A trophic level is defined as a position in the food chain where organisms are grouped based on their feeding relationships, with each level representing a different stage of energy transfer within an ecosystem. (Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 2015) TROPHIC STRUCTURE  FIVE TROPHIC LEVELS 1. Producers - Autotrophs obtain energy and nutrients by harnessing sunlight through photosynthesis (photoautotrophs) do not consume other organisms; they are, however, consumed by heterotrophs Ex. Trees, grasses, planktons, cyanobacteria, https://www.britannica.com/science/autotroph TROPHIC STRUCTURE  FIVE TROPHIC LEVELS 2. Primary Consumers derive their energy directly from plants or algae primary consumers cannot make their own food so they obtain energy by consuming these autotrophs https://microbenotes.com/primary-consumers/ Herbivores and Omnivores Ex. insects, mice, cows, horses, and butterflies TROPHIC STRUCTURE  FIVE TROPHIC LEVELS 3. Secondary Consumers organisms that primarily feed on primary consumers form a link between herbivores and top-level predators in the food chain https://microbenotes.com/secondary-consumers/ Carnivorous and Omnivores Ex. lions, tigers, snakes, wolves, leopards, and cheetahs TROPHIC STRUCTURE  FIVE TROPHIC LEVELS 4. Tertiary Consumers is an animal that obtains its nutrition by eating primary consumers and secondary consumers. are carnivorous predators, although they may also be omnivores, which are animals that feed on both meat and plant material https://biologydictionary.net/tertiary-consumer/ TROPHIC STRUCTURE  FIVE TROPHIC LEVELS 5. Decomposers These organisms that get their nourishment from dead organic material, such as decaying plant leaves or dead fish Break down the remains and other wastes and release simple inorganic molecules back to the environment TROPHIC STRUCTURE  A food chain is a A food web is a linear flow of energy and multitude of interconnected nutrients from one food chains at organism to another many trophic level https://byjus.com/biology/difference-between-food-chain-and-food-web/ https://www.adda247.com/school/food-chain/ TERRESTRIAL AQUATIC https://byjus.com/question-answer/give-one-example-of-an-aquatic-food-chain/ FOOD CHAIN https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/food-web-diagram-example-meaning/ https://askabiologist.asu.edu/plosable/marine-food-web-collapse TERRESTRIAL AQUATIC FOOD WEB MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM  A cohesive entity comprising aquatic organisms and their environment within a specific water area. Organisms within this ecosystem interact with AQUATIC their environment, maintaining a dynamic ECOSYSTEM equilibrium. (Ecological Indicators, 2024)  FRESHWATER SYSTEM The type of water ecosystem in which the water has a salt concentration of less than 5 ppt. is called the freshwater ecosystem. This ecosystem covers only 2% of the total water cover of the planet https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/aquatic-ecosystems-types/  LENTIC ECOSYSTEM (LACUSTRINE) Refers to standing water bodies or still water bodies, which include environments such as lakes, and ponds. Characterized by relatively stable water conditions Image Source: Samways et al., 2020 Balasubramanian, 2011 FRESHWATER SYSTEM  https://freshwaterecology.wordpress.com/category/fish/ FRESHWATER SYSTEM  LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS (RIVERINE) Refers to flowing water bodies, which include rivers, streams, creeks, and springs Characterized by the continuous movement of water, which https://www.ecoshape.org/en/landscapes/riversestuaries/river-environment/ influences the physical and biological conditions within them Balasubramanian, 2011 FRESHWATER SYSTEM Source: Jacoby et al., 2008  SWAMPS AND WETLANDS The freshwater ecosystem that is partially or fully covered by water like marshes, swamps, and bogs Characterized by the presence of water, either permanently or https://avianreport.com/freshwater-marshes/ seasonally, at or near the surface of the soil Balasubramanian, 2011 FRESHWATER SYSTEM https://www.exploringnature.org/db/view/Marshes-Swamps-and-Bogs MARINE SYSTEM The type of water ecosystem in which the water has a salt concentration of 35 ppt. or above. This ecosystem covers 98% of the total water cover of the planet https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/aquatic-ecosystems-types/  OCEAN ECOSYSTEM Oceans cover more than 70% of the earth’s surface Vast bodies of saltwater that support a diverse range of life forms http://theworldsoceans.com/ Balasubramanian, 2011 MARINE SYSTEM  ESTUARIES ECOSYSTEM The meeting point of a freshwater body and a saltwater body The water has more salt concentration as compared to freshwater bodies but is diluted as compared to saltwater bodies https://worldlandforms.com/landforms/estuary/ https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/aquatic-ecosystems-types/ MARINE SYSTEM  COASTAL ECOSYSTEM A dynamic environment where land meets the ocean, characterized by the interaction between terrestrial and marine ecosystems Ottinger & Kuenzer, 2020 Balasubramanian, 2011 MARINE SYSTEM TERRESTRIAL Refers to the land-based system that plays a crucial ECOSYSTEM role in the global carbon cycle by storing carbon, exchanging major fluxes, and responding dynamically to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and climate. https://www.freeworldmaps.net/biomes/biomes-map.jpg TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM TUNDRA a cold, treeless biome characterized by low temperatures, short growing seasons, and minimal precipitation typically features permafrost, https://www.treehugger.com/land-biomes-tundra-373498 which is a layer of permanently frozen soil beneath the surface Balasubramanian, A. (2013) https://databayou.com/world/tundra.html TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM DESERT covers about one-fifth of Earth’s surface https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/desert-biome/ typically marked by low precipitation (generally less than 25 cm or 10 inches https://geojango.com/blogs/explore-your-world/largest-deserts-in-the-world annually), high evaporation rates, extreme temperature variations, and nutrient-poor soils (Kulshrestha, 2023) https://databayou.com/world/deserts.html TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM GRASSLAND areas dominated by herbaceous (non- woody) vegetation, primarily grasses, and are characterized by a lack of significant tree cover (Zhao et al., 2020) typically occur in regions with moderate to low rainfall, which is insufficient to support the growth of https://earthly.org/nature-based-projects/grasslands forests but adequate for sustaining grass and other herbaceous vegetation (Bengtsson et al., 2019) https://databayou.com/world/grasslands.html TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS characterized by their distinct seasonal changes and the dominance of broadleaf trees that shed their leaves annually annual rainfall usually ranges from 750 to 1500 mm, with well- https://www.treehugger.com/land-biomes-temperate-forests-373499 defined seasons that include cold winters and warm summers Dreiss & Volin, 2020 https://www.britannica.com/science/biome#ref9014 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM TEMPERATE CONIFEROUS FORESTS characterized by the dominance of coniferous trees (typically have needle-like or scale-like leaves), which are adapted to the cooler climates of temperate regions https://www.britannica.com/science/coniferous-forest temperate coniferous forests thrive in regions with cold winters and moderate to high precipitation Dreiss & Volin, 2020 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM BOREAL (TAIGA) FORESTS primarily found in high-latitude regions, covering parts of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and Scandinavia They typically occur in areas where freezing temperatures persist for 6 to 8 months of the year dominated by coniferous trees https://earthbuddies.net/boreal-forest-shrinking/ such as spruce (Picea), fir (Abies), pine (Pinus), and larch (Larix) Gauthier et al., 2015 https://databayou.com/world/conifers.html TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM TROPICAL RAINFORESTS dense, lush forests located near the equator, characterized by warm average temperatures and high annual rainfall, typically exceeding 2,000 mm (79 inches) known for their rich biodiversity, https://palawan-news.com/palawan-lost-over-44000-kilohectares-of-natural-forest-over-the-past-20-years-says-intl- research-group/ hosting a significant proportion of the world's plant and animal species Dounias, E. (2018) TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM https://steemit.com/education/@ghostgtr/tropical-rainforests-and-deforestation-a-lesson-with-activities Dounias, E. (2018) TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM Dounias, E. (2018) https://www.flickr.com/photos/gridarendal/31984625680 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM MONTANE ECOSYSTEM type of ecological zone that occurs in mountainous regions, characterized by distinct vegetation bands and climatic conditions that vary with altitude feature a variety of habitats, including forests, grasslands, and alpine tundra, and they support diverse flora and fauna adapted to the cooler temperatures and varying moisture levels found at different elevations Singh (2018) https://trekero.blogspot.com/2013/10/climbing-mt-kalatungan-quick-guide.html TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM MONTANE ECOSYSTEM Montane fauna differ greatly as well, depending on a mountain’s latitude and elevation. Overall, the diversity of plant and animal life decreases with increasing elevation, paralleling what occurs at higher and higher latitudes in other biomes. Singh (2018) https://trekero.blogspot.com/2013/10/climbing-mt-kalatungan-quick-guide.html TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM Biomes are large-scale environments distinguished by characteristic temperature ranges and precipitation amounts. Dounias, E. (2018) https://pressbooks.uwf.edu/envrioscience/chapter/3-3-terrestrial-biomes/ HUMAN ECOSYSTEM coherent system of biophysical and social factors that are capable of adaptation and sustainability over time  ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ECOSYSTEM 1. BOUNDARIES refer to the defined physical and social limits that delineate the extent of the ecosystem (Machlis et al., 1997)  ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ECOSYSTEM PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES Geographical Limits (natural or artificial lines that define the area of the ecosystem) Resource Availability (distribution of natural resources within a specific area)  ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ECOSYSTEM SOCIAL BOUNDARIES Cultural and Social Constructs (cultural, social, and political contexts that shape the interactions among individuals and groups within the ecosystem) Institutional Limits (influenced by legal and institutional frameworks and regulations that dictate how resources are managed and utilized )  ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ECOSYSTEM 2. RESOURCE FLOWS the dynamic movement and exchange of various types of resources within a human ecosystem (Machlis et al., 1997) https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/24938/chapter/10#226  ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ECOSYSTEM 3. SOCIAL STRUCTURES the organized patterns of relationships and institutions that shape interactions among individuals and groups within a human ecosystem (Machlis et al., 1997) https://edutrysearchengine.wordpress.com/2016/08/23/our-environment-chapter-1/ URBAN ECOSYSTEM Urban areas are composed of natural and constructed systems where the human population is more concentrated, and there are complex interactions between socioeconomic factors and biophysical processes https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/77556 Any urbanized area can be viewed as being an ecosystem, because it has the following ecological attributes: a need for enormous inputs of energy and materials to sustain its human population and its diverse economic activities, and to maintain its structure and grow and immense outputs of heat and other waste materials, which are disposed of in surrounding ecosystems, causing pollution and other environmental problems Theodorou, P. (2022)  Humans withdraw 8% of the total annual renewable freshwater and appropriate 26% of annual evapotranspiration and 54% of accessible runoff https://www.geo.fu-berlin.de/en/v/iwrm/Implementation/water_and_the_physical_environment/Human-impact/index.html  HUMAN-MODIFIED ECOSYSTEMS Refers to natural environments that have been significantly altered by human activities. These modifications can occur through various means, including agriculture, urbanization, industrialization, and resource extraction. Western, D. (2001) CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPLICATIONS OF HUMAN-MODIFIED ECOSYSTEMS 1. ALTERED BIODIVERSITY the significant changes in the variety and abundance of species due to human activities Western, D. (2001) Gentili et al., 2024 CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPLICATIONS OF HUMAN-MODIFIED ECOSYSTEMS 2. SIMPLIFIED FOOD WEBS The complexity of food webs is reduced, as certain species are favored over others. https://byjus.com/question-answer/the-following-is-a-food-chain-that-ends-with-human-plants- bee-human-c-how/ Western, D. (2001) CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPLICATIONS OF HUMAN-MODIFIED ECOSYSTEMS 3. HABITAT HOMOGENEITY Human modifications create uniform landscapes, which can eliminate unique habitats and ecological niches https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1157181 Western, D. (2001)  CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPLICATIONS OF HUMAN-MODIFIED ECOSYSTEMS 4. HIGH NUTRIENT AND ENERGY INPUTS typically rely on significant external inputs of nutrients and energy, often from agricultural practices and industrial processes, which can disrupt natural cycles https://sites.psu.edu/wefnexus/about/ Western, D. (2001)  CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPLICATIONS OF HUMAN-MODIFIED ECOSYSTEMS 5. FRAGMENTATION The division of habitats into smaller, isolated patches due to urban development or agriculture can hinder species movement and reduce genetic diversity https://capla.arizona.edu/media/7998 Western, D. (2001)  CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPLICATIONS OF HUMAN-MODIFIED ECOSYSTEMS 6. LOSS OF NATURAL DISTURBANCE REGIMES the suppression or alteration of natural events such as fires, floods, storms, and other ecological disturbances that play a vital role in maintaining the health and balance of ecosystems Western, D. (2001) https://csfs.colostate.edu/forest-management/restoration-rehabilitation/  CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPLICATIONS OF HUMAN-MODIFIED ECOSYSTEMS 7. INCREASES HUMAN IMPACT ON BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES the suppression or alteration of natural events such as fires, floods, storms, and other ecological disturbances that play a vital role in maintaining the health and balance of https://www.britannica.com/science/biogeochemical-cycle ecosystems Western, D. (2001) THANK YOU FOR LISTENING