Chapter 13.docx

What Factors Lead to Attraction? • Secret relationships: Excitement increases because time and energy are spent suppressing the desire to talk about it • Factors that influence attraction include: Physical attractiveness Similarity Proximity Physical Attractiveness • We prefer objects/people we fi...

What Factors Lead to Attraction? • Secret relationships: Excitement increases because time and energy are spent suppressing the desire to talk about it • Factors that influence attraction include: Physical attractiveness Similarity Proximity Physical Attractiveness • We prefer objects/people we find attractive. This can be seen in the: Person we decide to date Car we buy Clothes we wear • Infants prefer pictures of attractive people • People from diverse backgrounds and cultures often agree on what is physically attractive The Benefits of Physical Attractiveness • Physically attractive people experience benefits: More likely to be hired for a job Higher starting salary Bigger raises Job security How Does Physical Attractiveness Lead to Attraction? • Biological explanations • Socio-psychological explanations Biological Explanations • We prefer physical features that indicate health and reproductiveness: Symmetrical face, well-proportioned body • Attractiveness stimulates reward centre of brain • What people find beautiful is fairly consistent: Prominent cheekbones Thin eyebrows Big eyes Socio-Psychological Explanation • Associating with attractive people could lead to social profit “What is beautiful is good” stereotype Attractive people tend to have better social skills Attractive people have more desirable traits: Less lonely Less anxious More popular More sexually experienced Smarter • Evolutionary Psychology: Men and women find different things attractive in a mate to maximize reproductive success • Men: Want to spread genes as much as possible (many partners) • Women: Look for men with high levels of education and well- paying jobs Critiques of Evolutionary Perspective • Gender differences in preferences are more pronounced when you ask about short-term dating (vs. long-term dating) Short term, both prefer physical attractiveness in a mate Both prefer androgynous dating partners Both prefer feminine characteristics (vs. masculine) in a dating partner • Women do not just want men with resources Want men with particular characteristics (ambition, talent) • Socio-cultural explanation of preferences: Gender differences in societal roles Differ in different societies Men prefer women who can produce healthy children Contrast Effect • How attractive we find someone depends on who we compare them too • Burleson, Hall, and Gutierres' (2016) study: participants were shown the photo of an average-looking person. • They were then asked to rate the attractiveness of a target that was either younger/older and male/female. • Results indicated that both younger and older women showed strong contrast effects Similarity • We like people who are similar to ourselves Attitudes Values Interests Demographic characteristics • Matching hypothesis: We tend to seek partners who are at roughly our own level of physical attractiveness • People who share our important traits and values make us feel good about ourselves Complementarity • People are not generally attracted to those who are fundamentally different from themselves Qualities in a partner that differ from one’s own quality are initially arousing and exciting, but can later be strongly disliked Self-evaluation Maintenance Model (SEM): Our self-concept can be threatened if our friends or partner outperform us Reciprocity • Reciprocity: We are attracted to people we think are attracted to us • Having someone like you more over time can lead to especially strong feelings of attraction • Believing someone likes you can lead to greater self-disclosure over time • Playing hard to get: Works for dating, but not for pursuing a long- term relationship Proximity • We are attracted to those who are familiar to us • You are more likely to meet, get to know, and become attracted to people who live or work near you • Mere exposure effect What is Love? • Four theories about love: Triangular theory Love styles theory Arousal-attribution theory Reward Theory Triangular Theory • 3 Components of Love: Passion: Deep physical attraction, sexual desire, constant thoughts about person Intimacy: Deep liking and emotional closeness Commitment: Responsibility and connection Changes in Love Across Relationship Stage • Characteristics of love change over time in a relationship Love Styles Theory • Six distinct love styles: Eros (passionate love) Ludus (uncommitted love) Storge (friendship love) Pragma (practical love) Mania (obsessive love) Agape (selfless love) Influence of Culture • Love styles differ across cultures Impact on Relationships ◦ Love styles are associated with relationship satisfaction and longevity ◦ We prefer dating partners who have similar love styles to our own ◦ Love styles influence interaction within on-going dating relationships Arousal Attribution Theory • Excitation transfer: When arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is misattributed to the second stimulus • Passionate love: Intense, exciting, all-consuming type of love; includes constant thoughts about the person, powerful physical attraction, intense communication • Passionate feelings increase when we are aroused Reward Theory • We like the people who are present when we experience reward (i.e., Classical Conditioning Why Does Love Matter? • Being in love makes us feel better about ourselves Higher self-esteem and self-efficacy • Developing loving close relationships is also good for our physical well-being What Predicts Relationship Satisfaction? • Attachment Styles: Expectations a person has about a relationship partner, based largely on the person’s early experiences with his/her caregivers • Positive Illusions: We tend to see our romantic partners as well as our relationships in highly idealized ways Attachment Styles • Children form close attachments to their parents and those who care for them • Secure Attachment bond: Parents are responsive to child’s needs; child feels comfortable depending on parents and is comfortable exploring new situations • Insecure Attachment bond: Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment: Parents’ responsiveness to child’s needs is inconsistent; child desires intimacy but has difficulty trusting and relying on others Avoidant Attachment: Parents are consistently unavailable and may even be dismissive or rejecting; child does not need or desire close relationships • There is some consistency between our childhood attachment styles and our adult attachment styles • Attachment styles are fairly stable across different relationships The Impact of Attachment Styles on Dating Interaction • Attachment styles are associated with how we interact • Attachment styles are associated with strategies for managing conflict: People who are securely attached are: Less anger-prone Endorse more constructive anger goals Report more adaptive responses and more positive affect in anger episodes Attribute less hostile intent to others Expect more positive outcomes • Insecure Attachment style: Difficulty managing conflict • Anxious Attachment style: Perceive more conflict with their partner than do others The Impact of Attachment Styles on Dating Interaction (Continued) • Attachment styles are associated with the types of sexual experiences people have and their motives for having sex Anxious attachment: Sex is a way of reducing insecurity and fostering intense intimacy Avoidant attachment: Sex is a way to increase one’s status and prestige among peers Positive Illusions • We tend to see ourselves in an overly positive light • We extend these idealized self-views to our relationships and our partners We see our romantic partners as particularly attractive and intelligent We describe our relationships as better than others’ Why Positive illusions Can Be Good • People who are in relationships also tend to ignore or devalue other potential partners, which in turn helps protect them from threats to their relationship. The Downside of Positive Illusions • Dating couples experience greater satisfaction when their partner sees them in an idealized way Individuals who see their spouse’s strengths and weaknesses more accurately are less likely to get divorce • Can lead to greater disappointment when these high expectations do not pan out Social Norms Approach • We like those who follow the social norms we value • Exchange relationships: Colleagues, acquaintances, distant relatives Benefits are given with expectation of comparable benefit in return Cost line (maximum point for giving a benefit) • Communal relationships: Lovers, family, close friends Benefits are given to fulfill needs or person we care for Varying levels of strength Social Exchange Theory • Social exchange theory: Our relationship satisfaction is determined by the costs and rewards of the relationship The Impact of Comparison Level • Relationship success/failure is influenced by expectations we have regarding costs and benefits of intimate relationships • Comparison level: Expected outcome of a relationship (expect relationships to be rewarding) • Comparison level for alternatives (Clalt): We make a similar type of calculation regarding the expected benefits and costs we could receive from having a relationship with various alternative partners The Impact of Investment • Investment: Resources devoted to a relationship that cannot be retrieved • Influences our commitment to relationship; our willingness to tolerate costs But is it Really Equity that Matters? • Equity theory: The ratio of costs and benefits for each partner is a better predictor of satisfaction than simply the overall costs and benefits Strategies for Increasing Relationship Satisfaction ◦ Increase the number of rewarding and positive behaviours in the relationship ◦ Engage in new, arousing activities with your partner to maintain relationship excitement over time ◦ Remember: Relationships can be very rewarding, but they require a lot of attention and energy to maintain What Are Common Problems in Close Relationships? • Common problems in close relationships: Conflict Jealously Loneliness Relationship dissolution Conflict • Married couples have an average of 2 to 3 disagreements per month • People handle relationship conflicts in very different ways How we handle conflict is a major predictor of relationship satisfaction and longevity Typology of Responses • Four major types of responses we use in handling conflict: Voice: Talking things over with partner to try to solve the conflict Neglect: Giving up on the relationship and withdrawing from it emotionally Exit: Leaving the relationship Loyalty: Remaining committed to the relationship and waiting for things to get better The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse • Four styles of conflict that are destructive in a marriage: Criticism: Complaining about your spouse/the relationship Contempt: Act as if sickened/repulsed by your partner Defensiveness: Protection of the self Stonewalling: Emotional withdrawal and refusal to participate in conversation Demand/withdraw interaction pattern: One partner is critical, nagging, insistent on discussing the problem; the other is withdrawn, silent, defensive Negative Attributional Traps • In happy relationships, we make beneficial attributions for our partner’s behaviour • Negative attributional traps: Explaining a partner’s behaviour in negative ways Strategies for Effective Conflict Resolution • Try to understand partner’s point of view: Put yourself in his/her shoes • Apologize and forgive Jealousy • Experience jealousy when fear threats—real or perceived—to your relationships • React with more jealousy to high levels of threat than low levels of threat • React with more jealousy to threats to your self-esteem Gender Differences in the Causes of Jealousy • Evolutionary psychology: Jealousy is an adaptation to the different reproductive issues faced by men versus women Men’s main concern is partner’s sexual infidelity, because they could end up raising another man’s child Women’s main concern is partner’s emotional infidelity, because men who are emotionally involved with a different partner could devote resources to this new relationship Critiques of Evolutionary Perspective ◦ Gender differences in jealousy may be due to different expectations men and women have about the pairings of emotional and sexual infidelity ◦ Evolutionary research uses hypothetical scenarios Loneliness •Social loneliness: Lack of close others; no social network Emotional loneliness: Lack of a romantic partner Consequences of loneliness include lowered immune competence, high blood pressure, high levels of stress hormones 3 factors that contribute to loneliness: ◦Poor social skills ◦Negative self-views ◦Negative expectations The Impact of Poor Social Skills • Poor social skills impairs formation of positive relationships • Lonely people engage in less self-disclosure and react negatively to others’ self-disclosure The Impact of Negative Self-Views • Lonely people generally have negative self-views • Experience negative emotions: anxiety, depression, shyness • Have trouble trusting others and fear intimacy • Lonely people show a greater accuracy for remembering negative feedback about themselves Relationship Dissolution • The end of a romantic relationship is stressful and disruptive ◦ Can lead to sadness, depression, anger • People who are left or “dumped” typically experience increased distress, compared to those who initiate the breakup Negative Impact of Divorce •Children of divorced parents often experience: ◦Higher conflict in their own marriage ◦More negative attitudes towards marriage ◦Decreased likelihood of being in a close relationship ◦Divorce is disruptive to children’s lives: ◦Changes family’s economic status ◦Adjusting to living in a single-parent home ◦Divorce may lead children to develop negative beliefs about relationships Benefits of Relationship Break-Up • Individuals whose parents divorced report more positive relationships with their mothers, greater social support, and more independence than those with intact families (Riggio, 2004). How Does Culture Influence Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships? • Culture impacts our views about attraction and close relationships, including: ◦ The definition of beauty ◦ The nature of love ◦ Definitions of friendship Defining Beauty • Researchers have documented cultural differences in the meaning of attractiveness • Cultures vary in the stereotypes they hold about attractiveness The Importance of Love For Marriage • Individualistic cultures: Love is important component of marriage ◦ Emphasize personal fulfillment in marriage ◦ Focus on impact of individual factors such as personality and attractiveness on relationship satisfaction • Collectivistic cultures emphasize importance of intimacy across a network ◦ Family approval of relationship influences commitment to the relationship The Importance of Love For Marriage (Continued) • People in individualistic cultures are more willing to dissolve a marriage that is not working ◦ This is because the primary goal of marriage is the happiness and fulfillment of the spouses • In collectivistic cultures marriage is a way to join two families together; happiness of the spouses is less important Satisfaction in Arranged Marriages • Arranged marriage is the most common type of marriage around the world • Couples in arranged marriages report some differences in patterning and interaction than those in couple-initiated marriages • Some research suggests satisfaction in arranged marriages is less than in couple-initiated ones Managing Conflict • People in different cultures rely on different types of strategies for managing conflict. • Cingöz-Ulu and Lalonde (2007) examined the conflict resolution styles of Canadians and Turks in a variety of relationships. • They found differences in two strategies: “giving in” and using help from a third party. • Canadian participants tended to vary their strategy more according to the relationship than did Turks. Research Methods Module Outline • How do researchers in social psychology test their ideas? • What are the types of correlational research methods? • How is experimental research conducted? • How is qualitative research conducted? • What are the ethical issues in conducting research? • How does culture influence research findings? How Do Researchers in Social Psychology Test Their Ideas? Form a Question • All research in social psychology starts with a question • Many studies in social psychology are based on the following: ◦ Observation of a real-world event ◦ To test existing theory Search the Literature • What have others have found about similar ideas? • Literature search ◦ Journal articles ◦ Search for topics on the web ◦ Online databases • Literature review ◦ Examine previous studies on a given topic ◦ Identify and discuss areas of controversy on the topic ◦ Attempt to reach overall conclusion Form a Hypothesis • Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur ◦ Statement about expected cause and effect relationship between two variables ◦ More specific than original question asked ◦ Includes specific prediction ◦ Usually based on previous observations and formed after literature search Create an Operational Definition • Operational Definition: Describes a specific procedure or measure of how you will test your hypothesis ◦ Researchers can define their variables in very different ways, which can influence the findings ◦ If you have a good operational definition, your measure is valid Collect and Analyze Data • Various ways to collect data: ◦ Observation ◦ Surveys ◦ Pre-existing documents ◦ Experiments • Analyzing Data ◦ Allows you to determine whether or not your hypothesis was supported Propose or Revise a Theory • Theory: An organized set of principles that explain observed phenomena ◦ Explains how or why events are connected ◦ Results of a study can lead to the revision of an already established theory Different Types of Correlational Research Methods • Correlational Research: Research technique that examines the extent to which two or more variables are associated with one another • 2 types of major correlational methods: ◦ Observational/Naturalistic ◦ Survey/Self-report Obervational/Naturalistic Methods • Used to describe and measure people’s behaviour in everyday situations • Systematically observe and record behaviour • Can observe interactions and rate them in various ways Observational/Naturalistic Methods (Continued) • Researchers can also collect naturalistic data without directly observing people’s behaviour • Archival research: Use already recorded behaviour (e.g., divorce rates, sports statistics Observational/Naturalistic Methods (Continued) • Meta-analysis: A literature review that analyzes data from several studies that examine related hypothesis • Meta-analyses use a statistical technique for combining data that have been collected by different researchers ◦ Evens out the strengths and weaknesses of particular studies as all the data are considered simultaneously Observational/Naturalistic Methods (Continued) Advantages Limitations Help researchers develop hypotheses and theories Presence of the observer is likely to influence behaviour Relatively easy to conduct Observers’ own biases can influence how they interpret the behaviour they observe Do not require extensive laboratory space, equipment, and assistance Correlation: Cannot tell us which variable causes the other Can provide data about rare events would be unable to examine in other settings Can provide large amounts of data researchers would never be able to collect on their own Self-Report or Survey Methods • Questions about thoughts, feelings, desires, behaviour • Can be asked directly (interview, written survey) Experimental Methods • Manipulate one or more independent variables and measure the effects on one or more dependent variables ◦ Independent variable: Variable that is manipulated ◦ Dependent variable: Measured to see if it is affected by the independent variable What is the Best Approach? • Experiments are best for examining whether a specific factor is likely to cause another ◦ This approach does not give us as much information about what happens in real life situations • Naturalistic observation methods give accurate information about what happens in the “real world” ◦ They do not tell us whether one variable causes the other How Do You Conduct Qualitative Research? • Quantitative approaches ask questions about quantity • Qualitative research asks questions about the quality of the object of research ◦ Qualitative researchers consider the meaning of their data rather than how much of X and Y there is • Three basic levels of qualitative analysis: ◦ Descriptive ◦ Thematic ◦ Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) Ethical Issues in Conducting Research in Social Psychology • To avoid conducting ethically questionable studies, there are now procedures researchers must follow: ◦ Review by a research ethics board ◦ Provide informed consent ◦ Protect confidentiality ◦ Provide debriefing Review by an Institutional Review Board • Studies undergo extensive review by a Research Ethics Board (REB) before they are implemented ◦ REB: A panel of experts responsible for the ethical assessment of all research proposals conducted at an organization ◦ Are the potential benefits of the research justifiable in light of risks or harms, including physical risks as well as psychological risks? ◦ May force experimenters to make changes in the design or procedure of the research, or deny approval for a particular study altogether Provide Informed Consent • Informed consent: Individual's deliberate, voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the researcher's description of what such participation will involve • Deception: Give false information to participants Protect Confidentiality • Participant confidentiality needs to be protected from unauthorized disclosure ◦ Use a code number instead of the person's name ◦ Data must be stored in a locked room with restricted access ◦ Reports using the data use only group-level information Provide Debriefing • Debriefing: A disclosure made to subjects after research procedures are completed ◦ Explain purpose of study ◦ Answer participants’ questions ◦ Resolve negative feelings ◦ Emphasize study’s contribution to science • Especially important if deception was used How Does Culture Influence Research Findings? • A corner stone in conducting cross-cultural research is to establish equivalency across cultures: ◦ Construct equivalency ◦ Sample equivalence ◦ Familiarity with research methods ◦ Response set-bias ◦ Linguistic equivalence ◦ The impact of language How Does Culture Influence Research Findings? (Continued) • Construct equivalency: It is possible that in different societies a concept is defined differently • Sample equivalence: It is important to ensure sociodemographic equivalency of participants in cross-cultural studies • Familiarity with research methods: It is likely that members of one society has more experience with a task compared to members of another society • Response set-bias: It has been suggested that people from East Asian collectivistic societies tend to have a modest or moderate style of responding to questionnaires compared to North Americans • Linguistic equivalence: It is crucial to ensure the content is translated meaningfully and there is overlapping comprehension in both languages • The impact of language: The language used during testing can affect findings