Life-Span Development 18e Chapter 10 PDF
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Yaşar University
John W. Santrock
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This chapter covers socioemotional development in middle and late childhood. Topics include emotional and personality development, families, peers, and schools.
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LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e John W. Santrock © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill. Chapter 10 Socioe...
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e John W. Santrock © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill. Chapter 10 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill. Chapter Outline Emotional and Personality Development. Families. Peers. Schools. © McGraw Hill 3 Emotional and Personality Development: Topics The self. Emotional development. Moral development. Gender. © McGraw Hill Fuse/Corbis/Getty Images 4 The Self 1 The development of self-understanding: Children aged 8 to 11 increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and traits. Recognize social characteristics of the self. Self-descriptions increasingly involve social comparison. Understanding others: Perspective taking: assuming the perspective of others and understanding their thoughts and feelings. Children become skeptical of others’ claims. Without good perspective taking skills, they are more likely to be oppositional and have difficultly with relationships. © McGraw Hill 5 The Self 2 Self-esteem and self-concept: Self-esteem, also called self-worth or self-image: global evaluations of the self. Self-concept: domain-specific evaluations of the self. The foundations emerge from the quality of parent-child interaction. Low self-esteem has been implicated in overweight and obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency. A current concern is praise for mediocre performance, resulting in inflated self-esteem. © McGraw Hill 6 The Self 3 Self-efficacy and self-regulation: Self-efficacy: the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes. Self-efficacy can affect a student’s choice of activities. High self-efficacy increases the likelihood a child will expend effort and persist longer at learning tasks. Self-regulation: characterized by deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts. Leads to increased social competence and achievement. © McGraw Hill 7 The Self 4 Industry versus inferiority: This is Erikson’s fourth stage, appearing in middle and late childhood. Industry: children become interested in how things are made and how they work. When they are encouraged, their sense of industry increases. Parents who see children’s efforts as mischief or making a mess can instead cause a sense of inferiority. School becomes important. © McGraw Hill 8 Emotional Development 1 Developmental changes: Improved emotional understanding. Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation. Increased awareness of the events leading to emotional reactions. Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions. Use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings. A capacity for genuine empathy. © McGraw Hill 9 Emotional Development 3 Coping with stress: Older children generate more coping alternatives for stressful situations. In turmoil or trauma, children may be too overwhelmed. Outcomes for children who experience disasters include acute stress reactions, depression, panic disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Dose-response effect: the more severe the disaster/trauma (dose), the worse the adaptation and adjustment (response). Another significant factor is the type of support available. © McGraw Hill 10 Moral Development 1 Two perspectives: Piaget proposed that children move from heteronomous morality to autonomous morality by 10 years of age. Children come to consider intentions, believe rules are subject to change, and know that punishment may not follow. Lawrence Kohlberg suggested three universal levels of moral development. Development from one level to another is fostered by opportunities to take others’ perspectives and experience conflict between one’s level of moral thinking and the reasoning of someone else at a higher level. © McGraw Hill 11 Moral Development 3 Kohlberg Stages Preconventional reasoning: the individual’s moral reasoning (good & bad) is controlled primarily by external rewards and punishment. In the 1st stage, moral thinking is tied to punishment In the 2nd stage, what is right involves equal exchange Conventional reasoning: the individual abides by certain standards, but these are standards set by others such as parents or society. In the 3rd stage, trust, caring & loyalty to others are the basis of moral judgments In the 4th stage, moral judgments are based on social order, law, justice & duty Postconventional reasoning: the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code. In the 5th stage, values, rights & principles transcend the law In the 6th stage, moral standards based on universal human rights are developed © McGraw Hill 12 Moral Development 3 Influences on Kohlberg’s stages: Development requires experiences dealing with moral questions and moral conflict. Peer interaction and perspective taking are critical. Kohlberg’s critics: Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on thought and not enough emphasis on behavior. Jonathan Haidt argues moral thinking is more often an intuitive gut reaction, with deliberative moral reasoning providing after-the-fact justification. Emotion plays a more important role than Kohlberg indicated. © McGraw Hill 13 Moral Development 4 Carol Gilligan argues Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias. It is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others. Justice perspective (K): a focus on the rights of the individual, where the individual independently makes moral decisions. Care perspective (G), views people in terms of their connectedness and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships, and concern for others. © McGraw Hill 14 Moral Development 6 Domain theory of moral development: identifies different domains of social knowledge and reasoning. Moral, social conventional, and personal. Arise from children’s and adolescents’ attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience. Some theorists and researchers argue Kohlberg did not adequately distinguish between moral reasoning and social conventional reasoning. Social conventional reasoning focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus. Moral reasoning instead focuses on ethical issues and rules of morality. © McGraw Hill 15 Moral Development 7 The study of prosocial moral behavior places more emphasis on the behavioral aspects of moral development. William Damon describes how children’s sharing begins to reflect a more complex sense of right and wrong during middle and late childhood. Equity can sometimes mean people with special merit or special needs deserve special treatment. © McGraw Hill 16 Gender 1 Gender stereotypes: broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about males and females. What is the reality behind gender stereotypes? Note that the similarities and differences observed are averages. There is considerable overlap. Differences may be due primarily to biological or sociocultural factors or both. © McGraw Hill 17 Gender 2 Physical development: Females have about twice the body fat, have a longer life expectancy, and are less like to develop disorders. On average, males tend to grow taller. Human brains are much alike, but there are some differences: Female brains are about 10% smaller but have more folds. An area of the parietal lobe that functions in visuospatial skills is larger in males. Areas of the brain involved in emotional expression show more metabolic activity in females. © McGraw Hill 18 Gender 3 Cognitive development: No gender differences in general intelligence have been found. Girls and women tend to have slightly better verbal skills. Although there are no significant gender differences in math scores, girls have more negative math attitudes, and parents’ and teachers’ expectations favor boys. Boys have better visuospatial skills. Females outperform males in reading and writing skills. Girls do better overall in academic achievement, but this may reflect many factors besides cognitive ability. © McGraw Hill 19 Gender 4 FIGURE 2: VISUOSPATIAL SKILLS OF MALES AND FEMALES Notice that although an average male’s visuospatial skills are higher than an average female’s, the scores for the two sexes almost entirely overlap. Not all males have better visuospatial skills than all females—the overlap indicates that although the average male score is higher, many females outperform most males on such tasks. © McGraw Hill 20 Gender 5 Socioemotional development: Similarities and differences have been studied in terms of aggression, emotion, and prosocial behavior. Boys are more physically aggressive; girls are more verbally aggressive; and relational aggression comprises a greater percentage of girls’ overall aggression. Girls express more emotion and are better at decoding it; and with age, girls more strongly express positive emotions. Boys usually show less self-regulation. Girls view themselves as more prosocial and empathetic, and they engage in more prosocial behavior. © McGraw Hill 21 Families: Topics Developmental changes in parent-child relationships. Parents as managers. Attachment in families. Stepfamilies. © McGraw Hill 22 Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships Parents spend considerably less time with children during middle and late childhood. Nevertheless, parents play an important role in supporting and stimulating children’s academic achievement. Parents use less-physical forms of punishment as children age. During middle and late childhood, some control is transferred from parent to child, producing coregulation. Children engage in moment-to-moment self-regulation. The major shift to autonomy does not occur until about the age of 12 or later. © McGraw Hill 23 Parents as Managers Parents manage children’s opportunities, monitor behavior, and initiate social contact. Mothers more than fathers engage in this managerial role. Among the most important practices is maintaining a structured and organized family environment. Positively related to students’ grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems. © McGraw Hill 24 Attachment in Families Attachment becomes more sophisticated. Children spend less time with parents, and their social worlds expand. Secure attachment is associated with lower levels of internalized symptoms of anxiety and depression. © McGraw Hill 25 Stepfamilies Remarriages involving children have increased in recent years. Remarried parents must: Define and strengthen their marriage. Renegotiate the biological parent-child relationships. Establish stepparent-stepchild and stepsibling relationships. Stepfamily types: Stepfather. Stepmother. Blended or complex. © McGraw Hill Todd Wright/Blend Images/Getty Images 26 Peers: Topics Developmental changes. Peer status. Social cognition. Bullying. Friends. © McGraw Hill Don Hammond/Design Pics 27 Developmental Changes Reciprocity becomes important in peer interchanges. The sizes of peer groups increase. Peer interaction is less closely supervised by adults. Children’s preference for same-sex peer groups increases. © McGraw Hill 28 Peer Status 1 Sociometric statuses of peers: Popular children: frequently nominated as a best friend, and rarely disliked by peers. Average children: receive an average number of both positive and negative peer nominations. Neglected children: infrequently nominated as a best friend, but not disliked by peers. Rejected children: infrequently nominated as a best friend, and actively disliked by peers. Controversial children: frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being disliked. © McGraw Hill 29 Peer Status 2 Popular children have social skills that contribute to their being well liked. Give out reinforcements, listen carefully, and maintain open lines of communication. Are happy, control negative emotions, and show enthusiasm and concern for others. Self-confident without being conceited. Rejected children often have serious adjustment problems. Aggression and its related characteristics of impulsiveness and disruptiveness underly rejection about half the time. About 10 to 20% of rejected children are shy. © McGraw Hill 30 Social Cognition 1 Social cognition—thoughts about social matters—is important to our understanding of peer relationships. Steps children go through in processing social information: Attend to social cues. Attribute intent through interpretation. Establish social goals. Access behavioral scripts from memory. Generate problem-solving strategies. Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies. Make decisions and enact behavior. © McGraw Hill 31 Bullying 1 Bullying is defined as verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful. The most frequent type is belittling about looks or speech. Boys and younger middle school students are the most likely to be bullied—often anxious, socially withdrawn, and aggressive children. Bullied children report loneliness and difficulty making friends. Bullies are more likely to have low grades and to smoke and drink. Social contexts can influence bullying. Poverty, family, school, and peer groups. © McGraw Hill 32 Bullying 3 An increasing concern is peer bullying and harassment on the Internet. Engaging in cyber harassment has been related to loneliness, lower self-esteem, fewer mutual friendships, and lower peer popularity. Being the victim of cyberbullying is linked to stress and suicidal ideation—possibly more so than traditional bullying. School-based interventions vary greatly. A recent review concluded that a focus on the whole school is more effective than using classroom curricula or social skills training. © McGraw Hill 33 Friends 1 Throughout childhood, friends are more similar than dissimilar. Six functions of friendships: Companionship. Stimulation. Physical support. Ego support. Social comparison. Affection and intimacy. Intimacy in friendships: self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts. © McGraw Hill 34 Friends 2 Developmental advantages of friendship occur when children have friends who are socially skilled and supportive. It is not advantageous to have coercive and conflict-ridden friendships. Friendship also plays an important role in emotional well-being and academic success. © McGraw Hill 35 Because learning changes everything. ® www.mheducation.com © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.