Chapter 1-Q-A.docx

Absolute Dating: methods of obtaining calendar dates for archaeological sites or fossil finds, including dendrochronology, radiocarbon dating, and potassium-argon dating. Except for dendrochronology, these methods yield dates with standard deviations, resulting in a time range within which a site or...

Absolute Dating: methods of obtaining calendar dates for archaeological sites or fossil finds, including dendrochronology, radiocarbon dating, and potassium-argon dating. Except for dendrochronology, these methods yield dates with standard deviations, resulting in a time range within which a site or fossil can be placed. Agency: a theoretical perspective that discusses the role of the individual in shaping change in cultures and societies. Archaeology: specialty in which researchers study humanity’s past; includes analyses of cultural materials such as flaked stone artifacts, animal bones, prehistoric art and personal ornamentations, etc., as well as settlement systems, taphonomy of archaeological sites, past social and political systems, and so forth. Archaeomagnetism: an absolute dating method that uses variation in the position of the Earth’s magnetic pole over time. When a fixed clay feature such as a clay-lined hearth is heated to at least 650˚C/700˚C, the iron particles in that clay are aligned to the magnetic north pole at that time. The orientation of the iron particles then is compared to a magnetic north pole sequence to determine an age for the firing of the feature. This technique can be used for sites that are 10,000 years old or younger. Archaeometallurgy: this archaeological specialty concerns the study of how metals were produced and used in the past. Bioarchaeology: specialists who examine human bones to identify features of individuals and populations. These include health, age, sex, habitual activities, height, diet, and nutrition. Cartesian Coordinate System: a three-dimensional grid system, in which horizontal axes (x and y) are combined with a vertical axis (z) to calculate the position of any given point. Each axis is perpendicular to the others. At archaeological sites, the x grid axis often corresponds to North-South and the y grid axis represents East-West. The z grid axis is the elevation of each point. Cultural Resource Management (CRM): archaeologists who work in the field of CRM have projects that are based on recovering data about areas that will be impacted by new construction, such as the expansion of a road or the building of a parking lot, or otherwise potentially destroyed, for example, areas used by the military for training exercises. Many of these regions are federal- or state-owned and are subject to a number of laws, regulations, and reporting requirements. Darwinian Archaeology (evolutionary archaeology): a theoretical perspective that interprets changes in cultures over time as due to evolutionary processes, such as natural selection, known from biological evolution. Datum: a reference point on the ground with known spatial coordinates, sometimes calculated as Easting (x) and Northing (y), as well as elevation (z). One or more datums are established at archaeological sites and used to set up site grids and for precision location measurement of artifacts, animal bones, structures, features, samples, and so forth, found during excavation at a site, as well as for archaeological survey. Dendrochronology: an absolute dating method that provides calendar year dates based on the analysis of tree-ring sequences of thicker and thinner annual growth rings; used in parts of Europe and in the American Southwest, but only extends back in time some 8,700 to 12,000 years ago. Ecodynamics: a theoretical approach that focuses on the interplay between the actions of humans and the environment using a complex web of interactions. Ecological Archaeology: a theoretical perspective developed in the 1930s to interpret long-term cultural changes in the context of how people responded socially, economically, and technologically to local ecology and changes in local ecology. Ethnoarchaeology: a discipline that uses the study of the behaviors of living people to better understand past patterns in the use of cultural materials, site organization, and settlement systems. Ethnography: a subfield of cultural anthropology in which living people are studied using firsthand observation. Fauna: bones of terrestrial and marine animals, birds, fish, and reptiles, as well as shellfish and microfauna. Gender Archaeology: a theoretical perspective that examines the roles of women, men, and other genders, as well as their relationships, in prehistory. Geoarchaeology: specialty in which geological analyses are used to aid in the interpretation of archaeological sites, such as the role of natural taphonomic processes, and of the formation of landscapes, in which sites are located, and landscape features. Geochemistry: specialty in which researchers study the chemical composition of artifacts and bones, as well as participate in laboratory analyses to determine the absolute age of sites. Human Behavioral Ecology (HBE): a set of theoretical models, based in ecology, that uses human decisions about resources (including food) and resource use to examine diversity in cultures across geographic space and through time. Indigenous Archaeology: this discipline relies on consultation and collaboration of archaeologists with native communities. It seeks to incorporate traditional knowledge, such as oral histories, values, and concerns of native groups about places in the landscape, to better understand the past. Native communities are active participants in interpretation. Landscape Archaeology: a theoretical perspective that uses features of the natural landscape in combination with the placement of archaeological sites and the cultural materials at those sites to better understand potential cultural meanings, symbolism, and ritual in past societies. Macrobotanical Remains: plant remains that are sometimes recovered from archaeological sites. They can include seeds and wood charcoal and are useful in reconstructing plant use (including plant foods) by earlier people, as well as aspects of local environments. Microfauna: in archaeology, this term refers to very small animals such as mice, moles, and snails; these small animals are very sensitive to changes in local temperature and moisture and thus are valuable indicators of paleoenvironments. Multidisciplinary Approach: to interpret the cultural materials and natural features of archaeological sites, site taphonomy, and landscapes, archaeologists collaborate with specialists within archaeology (for example, phytolith researchers, zooarchaeologists, archaeometallurgists, architects, materials conservators, and geoarchaeologists), as well as specialists from other disciplines (for instance, geochemists, geologists, ethnographers, and chronology laboratories). Networks and Boundaries: A theoretical framework that focuses on the creation and maintenance of alliances (networks) and the definition of political and community groups (boundaries). Niche Construction Theory (NCT): the idea that humans actively change or manipulate features of the landscape around them and resources in those landscapes in ways that build a niche or habitat in which they can be successful over long periods of time. It incorporates evolutionary ideas from biology and applies them to humans. Archaeologists have recently used this theory to help explain the origins of food production and of domesticated plants and animals in human societies. Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating: an absolute dating technique in which quartz grains are extracted from sediment samples from sites and subjected to laboratory treatment that releases light trapped in these grains. The emitted light, which accumulated as electrons from ionizing radiation in the sediment, is measured and used in calculating the last time the quartz grains were exposed to sunlight. Past exposure to sunlight released all trapped light, so that it set the “clock” to zero, and the accumulated light represents the period of time since the quartz grains were buried. Paleoanthropology: the study of human cultural and biological evolution by archaeologists and biological anthropologists; this term is commonly applied to biological anthropologists studying early hominin fossils. Paleoenvironment: the types of environments and habitats characteristic of regions during the past; these developed due to changes in climate, as well as later human manipulation of vegetation and animal communities. Paleomagnetism: this type of absolute dating technique uses reversals in the magnetic pole of the Earth; that is, at some points in time the South Pole was the magnetic pole, while at other times, such as today, the North Pole is the magnetic pole. The alignment of magnetic particles in rock such as lava can be measured to examine where the magnetic pole was at the time that layer was deposited. This technique is very useful for sites dating to 780,000 years ago and older. Palynology: specialty that focuses on the study of plant pollen to better understand past environments, human impact on environments, hominin diet, and climate change. Phytoliths: microscopic plant parts composed of silica or calcium oxalate that have shapes and sizes specific to particular plants; they usually preserve well and can lend insight into plant use, plant foods, and local environments at archaeological sites. Postprocessual Archaeology: a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the study of particular cultures and their histories, especially the role of ideology and the actions of individuals; it does not stress the use of scientific method. Potassium-Argon Dating: a radiometric dating technique that provides absolute dates based on the half-life decay rate of the radioactive isotope 40K (potassium) into the nonradioactive isotope 40Ar (argon); used in dating inorganic materials such as lava flows or tuff beds in the period from 100,000 years ago to hundreds of millions of years ago, and thus provides bracket dates for archaeological sites and hominin fossil finds. Processual Archaeology: a theoretical perspective that uses social, economic, and environmental dynamics to interpret cultural changes over time; it is based on the use of scientific methodology. Radiocarbon Dating: an absolute dating method that uses the decay rate of the radioactive isotope carbon-14 (14C) to calculate the age of organic materials, such as wood charcoal, found at archaeological sites. It can be used to date materials from the past 40,000 years, and possibly up to 60,000 years ago. Due to fluctuations in the amount of 14C in the Earth’s atmosphere over time, radiocarbon dates must be calibrated (adjusted) to reflect the actual date of a sample. Radiometric Techniques: dating techniques that use the principle of a known rate of decay of specific radioactive isotopes into stable isotopes over time; examples include radiocarbon dating and potassium-argon dating. Relative Dating: dating techniques that provide a sequence of “older” and “younger” rather than calendar dates; examples include stratigraphy and seriation. Remote Sensing: uses technology such as satellite images, ground-penetrating radar, and LiDAR (light detection and ranging) to aid in the location of archaeological sites and buried or vegetation-covered features of sites. Scientific Method: the process of gathering information (through observation or experimentation) and using this information to create and test hypotheses (ideas); testing hypotheses allows new information to be added and facilitates corrections that need to be made to the hypotheses. Seriation: a relative dating method in which the frequency of artifact types or styles is used to construct a chronology of “older than” or “younger than” based on the popularity of types or styles over time. Site Taphonomy: the natural and cultural processes that affect archaeological sites. Natural processes include the actions of animals such as hyenas who might consume animal bones left at a site, the effects of rain and sun on exposed archaeological materials, and erosion. Cultural processes include pit digging by later occupants at a site, reuse of stone artifacts left at a site, and modern-day looting. Spit: a term used by some archaeologists to describe an excavation unit that has an arbitrarily assigned specific depth and size; it is especially useful if natural or cultural layers are not easily seen in the stratigraphy. Stratigraphy: the layers or levels at an archaeological site. These can be defined as natural (geological) or cultural; can be used as a relative dating technique in which cultural materials found in deeper levels or layers are older than those in overlying levels or layers. Thermoluminescence Dating: an absolute dating technique that uses the principle of when an artifact such as a stone tool or a piece of pottery was last exposed to heating (as in a fire). Heating releases trapped electrons (light) and sets the clock to zero. After the heating event, ionizing radiation in the sediment of a site bombards the stone artifact or ceramic and electrons begin to accumulate in those pieces. In the laboratory, the electrons can be released as light and measured, and then used to calculate when in time that piece was heated. Total Station: equipment that combines a theodolite (which measures vertical and horizontal angles) with an electronic distance meter (EDM), which uses a laser beam to measure the distance from the total station to an object or point (where a prism is placed). The angles and distance are used to calculate x, y, and z coordinates (Cartesian coordinates) for each point. UTM Coordinates: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates are Easting and Northing numbers that are based on a system of metric grid cells that divide the world. Each Easting and Northing set of coordinates thus provides an extremely specific geographical location. Zooarchaeology: the study of animal bones found at archaeological sites. Zooarchaeologists usually identify the genus and species (when possible) and provide information on the types of animals present, as well as examine animal bones for stone artifact cut and percussion marks, evidence of use as tools, presence of shaped bone tools, and burning. Why Archaeology Is Important Novelist Leslie P. Hartley (1953) vividly compared the past to a foreign country. This analogy is not perfect, considering that the human past: is hundreds of thousands (or even millions) of years old, covers much of the globe, and features a staggering range of cultural variations. Text author Deborah I. Olszewski suggests that it is better thought of as many countries. But without a time machine, these are countries that we cannot visit directly. Archaeology, paleoanthropology, and related disciplines give us access to the vast majority of the human past that occurred before written histories. Archaeology can even broaden our understanding of times and places that are described by written documents or oral traditions, since people have always been selective and biased in what we choose to record. Olszewski describes archaeology as a bridge that connects us to the story of all humanity, or a window looking out on past human behavior. Evidence of earlier human behaviors is preserved in forms including fossils, tools, pottery (whole and fragments), animal bones, structures, grave goods, plant remains, and historical documents. The purpose of archaeology and paleoanthropology is to transform these static material remains, and their relations to one another in time and space, into a dynamic picture of prehistory. Survey and Excavation Methods “One of the basic truths in archaeology is that context is everything... Precise recording of all information about context is of utmost importance, and archaeology has developed and uses many techniques to achieve this goal” (Olszewski 2019:4). Research Design Archaeological fieldwork begins with a plan, or research design, that determines what questions will be asked, and what methods can best answer them. Research questions may be big, involving entire landscapes or regions, or small and focused on a specific site. Regardless of scope, research is guided by a theoretical perspective, a framework for interpreting archaeological data (see “Theories and Interpretations” below). Finding and Recording Sites The thrill of discovery is sometimes overly romanticized in popular archaeology. However, material remains of the past, usually occurring in concentrations we call sites, must be found before they can be interpreted. The process of discovering sites involves techniques as simple as walking and as complex as analyzing satellite data. Pedestrian survey is the most down-to-earth method, using lines of equally spaced surveyors who systematically walk across the landscape looking for artifacts or features on the ground surface. If the surface is obscured by vegetation, small test pits, or shovel probes, may be included in the survey. See The Big Picture: Archaeological Survey in Practice for a discussion of Cultural Resource Management (CRM) and examples of pedestrian surveys in Arizona and Egypt. “Archaeological sites also can be located using aerial photographs, remote sensing, infrared photography, historical documents, and talking to landowners and farmers, as well as sites found during construction and farming.” (Olszewski 2019:5). Remote sensing employs technologies that allow us to locate sites from a distance, and even “see” through vegetation and below the ground surface. For example, ground-penetrating radar sends radio pulses into the ground, which bounce back differently depending on the depth and density of subsurface features. LiDAR (light detection and ranging) provides a three-dimensional overhead view of the landscape, allowing archaeologists to digitally “remove” dense vegetation. Once sites are discovered, their precise location must be recorded using GPS coordinates (latitude, longitude, and elevation) or Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Coordinates. Sites can be more accurately mapped from the ground level using a total station. Locational data are then plotted on a topographic map, usually with a brief description of the site and its materials. Traditionally, this was done on paper maps. Modern GIS programs allow much more sophisticated analyses and efficient data manipulation. Excavating Sites Remote sensing can hint at, or outline, what lies beneath the surface. But to truly understand a site, archaeologists must dig. Just like survey, these excavations are precisely recorded and carefully controlled. To maintain spatial context, grids of equally sized units must be laid out, beginning from a datum, or initial reference point. This reference point, along with a transit and the Cartesian coordinate system, are used to orient any point at a site on horizontal (x and y) and vertical (z) axes. The vertical axis represents both elevation above ground and depth below the ground surface. Stratigraphy is the study of strata, or vertical layers, in an archaeological site. Individual strata may be defined: Naturally, based on geological changes in sediment. Culturally, based on archaeological materials. Arbitrarily, as metric levels (e.g., 10 cm levels), if there are no clear natural or cultural demarcations in the stratigraphic profile. The law of superposition is fundamental to geology, paleontology, and archaeology. According to this law, materials that lie in deeper layers tend to be older than those that lie above them. See The Big Picture: Archaeological Excavation in Practice for the recording, excavation, and sampling of a site in Jordan. In order to understand site taphonomy, or natural and cultural site formation processes, excavations proceed carefully with: Delicate tools like trowels and small brushes to reveal artifacts of any size. Dry or wet screening to recover microfauna, phytoliths, and macrobotanical remains—all of which are valuable indicators of past environmental conditions. In some cases, like the Jordanian rockshelter described above, even sediment samples for geochemistry analyses. Multidisciplinary Data Sets Most archaeologists are experienced enough to identify the materials they are likely to find at sites in their region: general stone tool types, ceramic fragments, human and animal bones, plant fibers, etc. They can also make informed observations about stratigraphy and soil types. However, the multidisciplinary approach of modern archaeology allows us to consult, and work alongside, specialists within archaeology and experts in other, related fields. These experts can provide a level of detail within their specialties that exceeds what any individual scholar, regardless of experience, could contribute. For example: Zooarchaeologists elaborate on a site’s fauna, and the many natural and cultural processes that affect animal bones. Archaeobotanists and palynologists analyze the macroscopic and microscopic remains of plants, reflecting both paleoenvironments and possible human use of plant species. Specialists in bioarchaeology reveal much about the biological and even behavioral characteristics of people from skeletal remains. Geoarchaeologists investigate how archaeological sites form and change through time. How Old Is It? The human story is a long one, extending at least 7 million years into the past. “Establishing when occupations at sites occurred is a key component in developing an understanding of social and political organization, the distribution of activities and sites, and the types of cultural materials specific to different time periods, as well as for creating a timeline for the story of our past” (Olszewski 2019:15). Relative Dating Relative dating methods indicate how different objects or events relate to each other in time. This creates a temporal sequence of “older” and “younger,” without establishing an absolute date for the objects or events. Stratigraphy is one method of relative dating. (It may help to illustrate this or refer students to Fig. 1.10.) Returning to the law of superposition, if artifact A is deeper underground than Artifact B, Artifact A is probably older. Stratigraphy can suggest a relationship between A and B, though we still would not know how old A and B are, or exactly how much time separates them from each other. The Three Age System (Stone, Bronze, Iron) is a relative sequence traditionally employed by archaeologists. Stone is older than bronze, which is older than iron. Today we can associate these Ages with calendar dates in many regions of the world. Seriation is similar to stratigraphy, but based on the premise that specific artifact styles have popularity “lifespans”: they gradually increase in popularity, reaching a peak at the widest part of the “battleship” curve (see Fig. 1.12), then decline as new styles replace them. Absolute Dating Absolute dating methods provide us with calendar dates (or ranges) for archaeological finds. In other words, absolute dates go beyond relative descriptors like “older” and “younger”; they tell us how old individual objects are. (Some prefer the term chronometric dating, since “absolute” implies a precision that is rare with most methods). Dendrochronology, or tree-ring dating, is an exception, in that it can date wood to within a single calendar year by counting sequences of thick and thin annual rings back in time (see Fig. 1.13). Drawbacks to this method are that many regions do not have established tree-ring sequences, and it extends no more than about 12,000 years ago. Archaeomagnetism measures the orientation of iron particles in fired clay features, then matches this to the position of magnetic north at different times in the past. Unfortunately, the technique can only be used on certain types of archaeological materials and only dates objects younger than 10,000 years. Paleomagnetism is also based on our understanding of magnetic principles, in this case the periodic reversal of the North and South Poles. This patterning is well understood, but paleomagnetic dating is only applicable prior to the last major polar reversal 780,000 years ago. Radiometric dating techniques calculate the age of materials based on the process of radioactive decay. Radioactive isotopes decay into stable isotopes at known rates. The most well-known of these is radiocarbon dating, which tracks the gradual decay of carbon-14 (14C) into nitrogen-14 (14N). This method can date any organic material (i.e., something that was once part of a living organism), such as charcoal, bone, shell, or plant materials. 14C dates must be calibrated owing to fluctuations in atmospheric carbon, but they are reliable up to 50,000 years ago and perhaps longer. Potassium-argon dating is a radiometric technique that can date much older materials, from 100,000 years ago to billions of years ago. It is commonly used by paleoanthropologists studying our early hominin ancestors. Unlike 14C dating, this method can date inorganic geological formations, especially volcanic rocks, by measuring the decay of radioactive 40K (potassium) into stable 40Ar (argon). Thermoluminescence dating (TL) is an absolute method applied to ceramics or chipped stone artifacts that are up to 1 million years old. When ceramics are fired at high temperatures (or chipped stone burned), electrons are released, setting their “clocks” to zero. TL reheats these materials in a laboratory and measures the amount of light emitted by electrons trapped since they were originally fired. This indicates the time elapsed between heating events. Optically stimulated luminescence dating operates on similar principles, measuring the amount of time that has elapsed since quartz grains in sediment samples were last exposed to sunlight. Both TL and OSL dates make use of standard deviations to determine age (see Fig. 1.14). Time Scales in Dating Multiple time scales are used to express when events in the past occurred. This is complicated by the fact that, historically, Western scholars reset the calendar at 2000 years ago; everything prior to that relatively recent date was counted backward (BC/BCE), and everything since then has proceeded forward (AD/CE). Olszewski uses the following time scale abbreviations in the text: “Years ago and bp to refer to uncalibrated periods of time before 50,000 years; cal BC (calibrated BC) for the period between 50,000 and 5000 years ago, although not all dates can be calibrated and so those will be referred to as years ago; BC for the period between 5000 years ago and the start of the AD calendar; AD in the same way that many of us use it today” (Olszewski 2019:21). Who Owns the Past? Considering that we all have a common origin and shared ancestry, it is easy to idealistically conclude that the past belongs to everyone. However, that conclusion requires a level of agreement and cooperation that is rare in a world of 7 billion people. These people have different national and ethnic identities, different political motivations, and different philosophies of how (and even if) we should explore the archaeological record. We call this record our cultural heritage and there are many organizations, federal laws (in the United States), and international conventions dedicated to preserving it. “Because they study humanity’s past, archaeologists in particular have an ethical responsibility regarding cultural heritage.” (Olszewski 2019:28). These safeguards are designed to ensure that the interests of all affected groups, especially native communities, are consulted, and their voices heard. This goal is central to the discipline of indigenous archaeology. See Peopling the Past: Indigenous Archaeology for a case study in Hawaiian archaeology. Continuing threats to the archaeological record include the following: natural disasters, economic development, illegal looting of antiquities, and the intentional destruction of artifacts and features by political/religious extremists (e.g., the Taliban and ISIS). “The destruction of cultural heritage matters to everyone, no matter which country they live in or whose specific cultural heritage is at stake, because each archaeological site (and region) is a nonrenewable resource and a piece of the story of all humanity” (Olszewski 2019:31).