Chapter 1 - Part I.pdf

Introduction CHAPTER 1 to Computer Organization Platform technology Christian sy  Overview of Computer Systems  Definition and Importance  Basic Components: Hardware vs. Software  Historical Evolution of Computer Systems  Generations of Computers  Ke...

Introduction CHAPTER 1 to Computer Organization Platform technology Christian sy  Overview of Computer Systems  Definition and Importance  Basic Components: Hardware vs. Software  Historical Evolution of Computer Systems  Generations of Computers  Key Milestones in Computer Architecture OUTLINE  Overview of the Von Neumann Architecture  Architecture Components: Memory, ALU, Control Unit, Input/Output  Instruction Cycle: Fetch, Decode, Execute What is Platform Technology? 3  Refers to a foundational technology, framework, or system upon which other technologies, applications, or processes are built and developed.  It serves as a base or "platform" that provides the essential infrastructure and tools needed to create, run, and manage various software applications, devices, or services.  A platform is the basic hardware (computer) and software (operating system) on which software applications can be run. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C Key Aspects of Platform Technology? 4  Foundation for Development: Platform technology provides developers the underlying architecture and tools to build applications. Examples include operating systems like Windows or Linux, cloud platforms like AWS or Azure, and programming environments like Java or.NET.  Interoperability: Platforms often support various applications, services, and hardware, enabling different systems to work together seamlessly. This interoperability is crucial for integrating new technologies into existing ecosystems.  Scalability: Effective platform technologies are designed to support scaling, allowing systems to handle increased workloads or expanded functionalities without compromising performance.  Security: Platform technologies typically include security measures to protect data, manage user access, and ensure the safe operation of applications and services.  Ecosystem: Many platform technologies support a broader ecosystem of tools, services, and applications, fostering innovation and collaboration among developers and businesses. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C Examples of Platform Technology? 5  Operating Systems: Provide the interface between hardware and software applications. Examples include Windows, macOS, Linux.  Cloud Platforms: Offer computing resources, storage, and services over the internet. Examples include Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud.  Mobile Platforms: Frameworks for developing mobile applications. Examples include Android and iOS.  Blockchain Platforms: Provide the infrastructure for decentralized applications. Examples include Ethereum and Hyperledger. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C Platform Technology Platform Technology Different layers Components: End-user applications, productivity software, development tools, web browsers. Example: Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop, Google Chrome, Application Visual Studio, or VLC Media Player. Role: The application layer consists of software that directly interacts with the user to perform specific tasks, such as word Layer processing, image editing, browsing the web, or writing code. Platform Technology Different layers Components: Operating system (OS), device drivers, system utilities. Examples: Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux distributions (like Ubuntu), or even embedded OS for specific devices. Platform Role: The platform layer is responsible for specific functionalities within the platform, ensuring that the various components of the computer system work together efficiently. It Layer acts as an intermediary between different layers, such as connecting hardware to software or managing communication between applications. Platform Technology Different layers Components: APIs, system calls, command-line interfaces, graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Examples: WinAPI on Windows, POSIX API on Unix/Linux systems, or Cocoa on macOS. Interface Role: Interfaces allow applications to interact with the operating system and hardware. They provide standardized ways for software to request services from the OS, such as accessing files, handling input/output operations, or managing Windows. Platform Technology Different layers Example: Microsoft Word for document processing, Adobe Photoshop for image editing, or Google Chrome for web browsing. application Role: Represents a specific software product or program that users interact with to perform tasks. The application leverages the platform (OS) to access system resources and provide functionality. Platform Technology Different layers Example: The operating system, such as Windows, macOS, or Linux. Platform Role: The platform is the complete environment that facilitates the operation and execution of applications, integrating hardware and software to provide a seamless user experience. Platform Technology Different layers Components: Physical hardware, including the CPU, RAM, hard drive, motherboard, power supply, and network interface card (NIC). Example: The physical components of a desktop or laptop Infrastructure computer, such as an Intel or AMD processor, Kingston RAM, Seagate hard drive, and NVIDIA GPU. Role: Provides the fundamental hardware resources that support all other layers. This includes processing power, memory, storage, and networking capabilities. Overview of Computer Systems 13 A computer system is a combination of hardware and software components that work together to perform tasks. Hardware Definition refers to the physical components, while software includes the instructions and data that guide the hardware. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C Overview of Computer Systems 14 Understanding the basic structure of a computer system is crucial for designing, optimizing, and troubleshooting various importance computing devices. Computer organization forms the foundation for understanding how different components interact to execute programs efficiently. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization basic Components Hardware vs software 15 Hardware components Hardware components are the physical parts of a computer system that you can touch and see. These include both the internal components, like the motherboard and CPU, as well as external devices, such as the keyboard and monitor. Software components Software components are the non-physical parts of a computer system, consisting of data and programs that instruct the hardware on what to do. Software includes operating systems, applications, and system utilities. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization basic Components Hardware components 16 Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory i/o devices motherboard Often considered the brain of Includes RAM (Random Access Devices like keyboards, mice, The main circuit board that the computer, the CPU performs Memory) and storage devices. and monitors that allow users connects all hardware calculations and executes RAM temporarily stores data for to interact with the computer. components. instructions from software quick access by the CPU, while programs. storage devices like hard drives and SSDs store data permanently. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization basic Components Hardware components 17 Power Supply Unit Graphics Processing (PSU) Unit (GPU) Cooling System Converts electrical power from A specialized processor Hardware that dissipates heat an outlet into usable power for designed to accelerate the generated by the CPU, GPU, and the internal components of the rendering of images and videos. other components. Cooling systems computer. Modern GPUs are also used for include fans, heat sinks, and liquid complex computational tasks cooling solutions, which help beyond graphics, such as deep maintain optimal operating learning. temperatures. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization basic Components software components 18 Application Operating System (OS) Software System software firmware The primary software that Programs designed to perform Utilities that help maintain A type of software that is manages hardware resources specific tasks for users, such as the computer's operations, permanently programmed and provides an interface for word processors, web browsers, such as antivirus programs into hardware components to users to interact with the and games. and disk management tools. control their basic functions computer (e.g., Windows, (e.g., BIOS/UEFI in macOS, Linux). computers). Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization Generatio n of 1 st to 5 th Computer Generations s Evolution of computer systems 1st generation – 1940 to 1956 20 The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes as a major piece of technology. Vacuum Vacuum tubes tubes were widely used in computers from 1940 through 1956. Vacuum tubes were larger components and resulted in first-generation computers being quite large in size, taking up a lot of space in a room. Some of the first-generation computers took up an entire room. Examples: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 1st generation Vacuum Tubes – 1940 to 1956 Eniac - Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer  In 1953, the Burroughs Corporation built a 100-word magnetic-core memory, which added to the ENIAC's memory capabilities, which at the time only held a 20-word internal memory. By 1956, the end of its operation, the ENIAC occupied about 1,800 square feet and consisted of almost 20,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, 10,000 capacitors, and 70,000 resistors. It also used 200 kilowatts of electricity, weighed over 30 tons, and cost about $487,000.  ENIAC was the first electronic computer used for general purposes, such as solving numerical problems.  It was designed and invented by John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the university of Pennsylvania to calculate artillery firing tables for the US army's ballistic research laboratory.  Other examples of first-generation computers include the EDSAC, IBM 701, and Manchester Mark 1. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 1st generation – 1940 to 1956 Vacuum Tubes The picture is a public domain U.S. Army photo of the ENIAC. The wires, switches, and components are all part of the ENIAC with two of the team of operators helping run the machine. Evolution of computer systems 2nd generation – 1956 to 1963 23 The second generation of computers marked a significant advancement in computing transistors technology, primarily characterized by the transition from vacuum tubes to transistors as the main component for processing. This shift brought about size, speed, efficiency, and reliability improvements. The first computer to use transistors was the TX-0, which was introduced in 1956. Other computers that used transistors include the IBM 1401, IBM 7090, and UNIVAC Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 2nd generation – 1956 to 1963 Transistors 24 Transistor Technology Size and Speed Memory and storage  Transition from Vacuum Tubes: The  Size Reduction: Transistors were much  Magnetic Core Memory: Second- most significant innovation was the smaller than vacuum tubes, reducing generation computers utilized replacement of bulky, heat-generating the physical size of computers. This magnetic core memory, which used vacuum tubes with smaller, more made them easier to maintain and tiny magnetic rings (cores) to store reliable transistors. Developed in 1947 operate, and more accessible for data. This provided faster access times by Bell Laboratories, transistors were various industries. compared to first-generation made of semiconductor materials like computers' delay lines and drum  Increased Speed: Second-generation silicon and could switch electronic memories. computers could process data much signals on and off, much like vacuum faster, often at microsecond speeds  Magnetic Tape and Disk Storage: tubes, but far more efficiently. (millionths of a second). This made Magnetic tape was commonly used for  Impact: Transistors led to smaller, them suitable for complex scientific storing large amounts of data. Later, faster, more reliable, and energy- calculations and business data magnetic disks were introduced, efficient computers. This allowed processing. providing direct access to data rather computers to be more widely used in than sequential access, further commercial and scientific applications. improving data retrieval speeds. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 2nd generation – 1956 to 1963 transistors 25 Programming Commercial and languages Scientific Applications Representative Models  Introduction of High-Level Languages:  Business Use: Second-generation  IBM 1401: A popular business Second-generation computers saw the computers were adopted by businesses computer, known for its versatility and development and use of high-level for tasks like payroll processing, widespread use in data processing programming languages like COBOL inventory management, and tasks. (Common Business-Oriented accounting. Their reliability and speed  IBM 7090: A powerful scientific Language) and FORTRAN (Formula made them valuable tools for large- computer used in research institutions Translation). These languages were scale data processing. and space exploration projects, more user-friendly than machine and  Scientific Research: These computers including NASA's Mercury and Gemini assembly languages, making were also employed in scientific missions. programming more accessible and research for simulations, calculations, efficient.  UNIVAC II: An improved version of the and data analysis, contributing to first commercial computer, UNIVAC I,  Assembly Language: Although high- advancements in various fields, offering better performance and level languages were becoming including physics, engineering, and storage capabilities. popular, assembly language was still space exploration. widely used for system programming and low-level tasks. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 2nd generation – 1956 to 1963 transistor 26 Winter Sales Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 2nd generation – 1956 to 1963 Transistor – IBM 7090 27 Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 2nd generation – 1956 to 1963 Transistor – Univac (Universal Automatic Computer) 28 Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C Evolution of computer systems 3rd generation – 1964 to 1971 29 The Third Generation of Computers (approximately 1964–1971) represented a significant Integrated circuits leap in computing technology, primarily characterized by the introduction of integrated circuits (ICs). This innovation greatly enhanced computers’ power, speed, and efficiency while significantly reducing their size and cost. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 3 rd generation – 1964 to 1971 Integrated-circuits 30 Size, Speed & Integrated Circuits (ICs) Efficiency Memory and storage  Transition from Transistors: The most  Size Reduction: ICs enabled computers to  Improved Memory Technologies: The notable advancement in the third become much smaller, leading to the third generation saw advancements in- generation was the use of integrated development of minicomputers that were more memory technology, introducing circuits, which allowed multiple affordable and accessible to smaller businesses semiconductor memory, which was transistors, resistors, and capacitors to and organizations. faster and more reliable than magnetic be embedded into a single silicon chip. core memory. This allowed for quicker  Increased Speed: Third-generation computers This innovation was pioneered by Jack access to data and larger memory operated at much higher speeds, often Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert capacities. measured in nanoseconds (billionths of a Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in second). This increase in processing power  Magnetic Disks: Magnetic disk storage the late 1950s and early 1960s. made them capable of handling more complex became more common, providing  Impact: Integrated circuits drastically tasks and larger datasets. faster access to stored data and reduced the size of computers, making improving overall system performance.  Efficiency: The gains from ICs also meant that them more compact, reliable, and third-generation computers could perform powerful. They also consumed less more calculations per second while using less power and generated less heat than power and generating less heat, making them the previous transistor-based more reliable and reducing the need for computers. extensive cooling systems. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C  3 rd generation – 1964 to 1971 Integrated-circuits 31 Operating Systems and Commercial and Software Scientific Applications Representative Models  Multiprogramming and Time-Sharing: Third-  Widespread Adoption in Business: The  IBM System/360: One of the most famous generation computers introduced the concept of multiprogramming, where multiple programs could affordability and power of third-generation third-generation computers, the IBM run concurrently, sharing CPU time. Time-sharing computers led to widespread adoption in System/360 was a family of compatible systems also became popular, allowing multiple users businesses of all sizes. They were used for mainframe computers that could run the to interact with the computer simultaneously. various applications, including accounting, same software across different models,  Development of More Sophisticated Operating inventory management, payroll, and revolutionizing the computer industry. Systems: Operating systems like IBM's OS/360 were customer relationship management. developed, providing a more stable and user-friendly  DEC PDP-8: Known as the first successful environment for running applications. These  Scientific and Engineering Uses: Third- minicomputer, the DEC PDP-8 was operating systems supported features like multitasking, batch processing, and virtual memory. generation computers were also employed affordable and compact, making it in scientific research, engineering, and accessible to smaller businesses and  High-Level Programming Languages: The use of space exploration, handling complex educational institutions. high-level programming languages continued to grow, with the development of languages like BASIC simulations, data analysis, and real-time  UNIVAC 1108: An advanced version of (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) processing. They played a crucial role in and C, which further simplified programming and earlier UNIVAC models, the UNIVAC 1108 projects such as the Apollo moon missions. made computers more accessible to non-specialist was widely used in business and users. government applications and is known for its reliability and performance. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 3 rd generation – 1964 to 1971 Integrated-circuits 32 Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 3 rd generation – 1964 to 1971 Integrated-circuits 33 DEC PDP - 8 Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C Evolution of computer systems 4th generation – 1964 to 1971 34 The Fourth Generation of Computers (approximately 1971–present) is characterized by Micro processors the development and widespread use of microprocessors—an entire computer's processing unit integrated into a single chip. This generation marks the beginning of the modern computing era, bringing computers into homes, businesses, and personal use on a massive scale. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 4 th generation – 1971 to present microprocessors 35 Personal Computers Microprocessors (PCs) Memory and storage  Introduction of Microprocessors:  Rise of the Personal  Increased Memory Capacities: With The most significant advancement Computer: The fourth advancements in semiconductor memory in the fourth generation was the generation saw the rise of the technologies, fourth-generation computers introduction of microprocessors, personal computer, starting with featured significantly larger memory which integrate thousands or even early models like the Altair 8800, capacities. RAM (Random Access Memory) millions of transistors onto a single Apple I, and Apple II, and sizes grew rapidly, enhancing the silicon chip. The first commercially eventually leading to the IBM PC performance of applications and the overall successful microprocessor was the in 1981, which set the standard computing experience. Intel 4004, introduced in 1971. for personal computing.  Hard Drives and Solid-State Drives:  Impact: Microprocessors drastically  Widespread Adoption: Storage technology also evolved, with the reduced the size and cost of Personal computers became development of hard disk drives (HDDs) computers, making them affordable ubiquitous in homes, schools, and, later, solid-state drives (SSDs), which and compact enough to be used in and offices, revolutionizing how offered faster access times, larger personal computers (PCs). This people work, learn, and capacities, and greater reliability. SSDs, in technological breakthrough led to communicate. They particular, have become standard in the creation of the first truly portable democratized computing, making modern computers, providing much quicker and personal computers. it accessible to individuals rather data retrieval than traditional HDDs. than just large corporations or institutions. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 4 th generation – 1971 to present microprocessors 36 Software and Operating Networking and the Miniaturization and Systems Internet Portability  Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs): The  Development of Networking: The  Laptops and Mobile Devices: The fourth generation introduced the fourth generation also saw the miniaturization of components widespread use of graphical user development of networking allowed for the development of interfaces, starting with systems like the technologies, which enabled computers portable computers like laptops Apple Macintosh in 1984 and later to connect to one another, share and, eventually, mobile devices like Microsoft Windows. GUIs made resources, and communicate over smartphones and tablets. These computers much easier to use by distances. This laid the foundation for devices provided the power of a allowing users to interact with the creating local area networks (LANs) and desktop computer in a much more machine using visual icons and a the eventual global spread of the portable form, enabling computing mouse, rather than typing commands. Internet. on the go.  Advanced Operating Systems:  The Internet Revolution: The  Embedded Systems: Operating systems became more widespread adoption of the Internet in Microprocessors also led to the sophisticated, with the development of the 1990s transformed the fourth proliferation of embedded systems, Microsoft Windows, macOS, and various generation of computing. It enabled where computers are integrated into Linux distributions. These OSes global communication, access to other devices such as automobiles, provided multitasking, networking information, and the creation of new medical equipment, household capabilities, and extensive support for industries like e-commerce, social appliances, and industrial various applications and peripherals. media, and cloud computing. The machines. Internet has become an integral part of daily life and business. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 4 th generation – 1971 to Present microprocessors 37 IBM PC: Introduced in 1981, the IBM PC became the standard for personal computers, setting the foundation for the modern PC industry. Apple Macintosh: The Intel Pentium Launched in 1984, the microprocessors, Macintosh was one of introduced in the early the first computers to 1990s, became a popularize the use of a benchmark in personal graphical user interface, computing, offering making computers significant performance more user-friendly and improvements for accessible. various applications. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C Evolution of computer systems 5th generation – 1980s to present 38 The Fifth Generation of Computers (from the 1980s to the present and beyond) artificial intelligence (AI), represents a phase focused on artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, quantum computing, and natural language processing. Unlike previous generations that were machine learning, quantum defined by specific hardware advancements, the fifth generation is characterized by its computing, and natural emphasis on creating more intelligent systems that can learn, reason, and process human-like tasks. language processing Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 5 th generation – 1980s to present artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, quantum computing, and natural language processing 39 Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning and Natural Language (AI) Deep Learning Processing (NLP)  AI Integration: The hallmark of  Machine Learning: A subset of  Understanding Human Language: fifth-generation computers is their AI, machine learning enables NLP enables computers to integration of AI technologies. AI computers to learn from data and understand, interpret, and respond allows computers to perform improve their performance over to human language in a meaningful tasks that typically require human time without explicit and useful way. This has led to the intelligence, such as recognizing programming. This has led to development of more sophisticated speech, making decisions, advancements in various fields, chatbots, language translation understanding natural language, such as healthcare, finance, and services, and text analysis tools. and learning from data. entertainment.  Examples of NLP applications are  Examples of AI Applications:  Deep Learning: A more complex ChatGPT, Google's BERT Personal assistants like Siri, form of machine learning, deep (Bidirectional Encoder Alexa, and Google Assistant; AI- learning uses neural networks Representations from driven recommendation systems with many layers (hence "deep") Transformers), and translation on platforms like Netflix and to model and solve complex services like Google Translate. Amazon; and autonomous problems, such as image and vehicles that can navigate and speech recognition, with make decisions on the road. remarkable accuracy. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 5 th generation – 1980s to present artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, quantum computing, and natural language processing 40 Parallel Processing and Quantum Computing Supercomputing Advances in Hardware  Introduction to Quantum Computing:  Parallel Processing: Fifth-generation  Nanotechnology: Fifth-generation Quantum computing is an emerging computers increasingly use parallel computers have seen the use of technology that leverages the principles processing architectures, where nanotechnology to create smaller, of quantum mechanics to perform multiple processors or cores work faster, and more efficient computations far more efficiently than together simultaneously to solve processors. This has contributed to classical computers for certain types of complex tasks more quickly. This is a the ongoing miniaturization of problems. Quantum computers use common feature in modern CPUs and devices and the enhancement of quantum bits, or qubits, which can GPUs designed to handle tasks like computing power. represent multiple states simultaneously, gaming, scientific simulations, and AI allowing them to process vast amounts computations.  High-Performance Graphics of data at unprecedented speeds. Processing Units (GPUs): GPUs,  Supercomputing: Advances in parallel originally designed for rendering  Current Status: While still in the processing have led to the development graphics, have become essential in experimental stage, quantum computing of supercomputers capable of AI and deep learning, as they can holds the promise of solving complex performing billions of calculations per handle the massive parallel problems that are currently intractable second. These machines are used for computations required by these for classical computers, such as drug climate modeling, genome sequencing, applications. discovery, cryptography, and and simulating nuclear reactions. optimization problems. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C 5 th generation – 1980s to present artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, quantum computing, and natural language processing Ubiquitous Computing 41 and the Internet of User-Centric Design Things (IoT) Cloud Computing and HCI  Ubiquitous Computing: Also  Shift to the Cloud: Cloud  Human-Computer Interaction known as pervasive computing, computing has become a (HCI): The design of fifth-generation this concept refers to integrating cornerstone of fifth-generation systems places a strong emphasis computing into everyday objects technology, allowing users to on improving the user experience, and environments, making store and process data remotely making technology more intuitive, technology seamlessly part of on powerful servers rather than accessible, and responsive to user daily life. This includes smart on local machines. This has needs. This includes advancements homes, wearable devices, and enabled the growth of services in virtual reality (VR), augmented connected cars. like software as a service reality (AR), and gesture-based (SaaS), platform as a service interfaces.  Internet of Things (IoT): The IoT (PaaS), and infrastructure as a refers to a network of  Examples: VR headsets like the service (IaaS). interconnected devices that can Oculus Rift, AR apps on communicate and share data with  Examples: Amazon Web smartphones, and touchless each other. This has led to smart Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, interfaces in smart devices. cities, automated industrial and Google Cloud Platform systems, and more personalized provide the infrastructure for consumer experiences. running AI models, storing data, and hosting applications globally. Chapter 1 - Introduction to Computer Organization C Build your own generation Yes, we can do that Students work in groups to design a new generation of computers, considering what technologies they might include, how they will improve upon the previous generations, and their potential impact on society. present your concepts to the class, explaining the innovations and features of their imagined computer generation. Groupwork of 5 to 6 Thank You! Any Questions?