Buildings and the Environment PDF

1 MAKING BUILDINGS BUILDINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 7 th Edition Copyright © 2019 J. Iano Buildings and the Environment Environmental Impacts Constructing and operating buildings accounts for roughly...

1 MAKING BUILDINGS BUILDINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 7 th Edition Copyright © 2019 J. Iano Buildings and the Environment Environmental Impacts Constructing and operating buildings accounts for roughly Transportation Buildings 1/3 of worldwide energy consumption and greenhouse gas Industry emissions. Buildings and the Environment In the United States, building construction and operation consume:  1/3 or more of energy  70 percent of electricity  12 percent of potable water  30 percent of raw materials and generate 1/3 of all solid waste and emit significant quantities of air pollutants. Buildings and the Environment U.S. building construction and operation account Transportation Buildings for as much as 45 percent of the Industry country’s carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) emissions. Buildings and the Environment Sustainability 1987 United Nations, Our Common Future, defined sustainable development as: Meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs… Buildings and the Environment Building sustainably means:  Reducing the depletion of fossil fuels  Preserving arable land  Protecting forests and natural ecosystems  Protecting water resources  Minimizing air pollution  Minimizing materials consumption and waste  Maximizing the healthfulness of the interior building environment Buildings and the Environment Sustainable building design and construction, or green building, aspires to:  Minimize environmental harms and adverse health impacts  Or, better, do no harm or even reverse previous harms Buildings and the Environment Bullitt Center generates more electricity than it consumes. First building to achieve Living Building Certification. Bullitt Center, Seattle, architect Miller Hull Partnership Buildings and the Environment Sustainable Buildings Integrated design process (IDP): Interdisciplinary, holistic approach to achieving sustainable buildings.  Prioritizes sustainability goals  Emphasizes collaborative processes  Breaks down traditional discipline boundaries  Maximizes synergies between systems Buildings and the Environment Leadership In Energy and Environmental Design or LEED  Voluntary program developed by U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), an independent, private, not-for-profit organization  Most broadly implemented green building program in North America Buildings and the Environment LEED for New Construction and Renovation (LEED NC) addresses:  Location and transportation  Sustainable Sites  Water Efficiency  Energy and Atmosphere  Materials and Resources  Indoor Environmental Quality  Innovation  Regional priority Buildings and the Environment Example LEED prerequisites and credits: Buildings and the Environment Four rating levels:  Platinum: 80-110 points  Gold: 60-79 points  Silver: 50-59 points  Certified: 40-49 points Buildings and the Environment LEED  Most broadly implemented green building program in North America  Voluntary, depends on adoption by private developer or public agency  Also includes rating systems for existing buildings, commercial interiors, homes, neighborhood developments, and more Buildings and the Environment International Living Future Institute’s Living Building Challenge, 7 petals:  Place  Water  Energy  Health & Happiness  Materials  Equity  Beauty Buildings and the Environment Living Certified buildings  Net positive water: Obtain 100% of fresh water from precipitation or closed loop systems  Net positive energy: Generate more than 100% of energy from on-site renewable sources (annualized)  Net zero carbon: Mitigate embodied carbon with purchased offsets  (and more) Buildings and the Environment Describing Sustainable Materials Product data sheets provide product information self-reported by the material manufacturer. Environmental labels (eco-labels) provide third-party, independent environmental product assessments. Product disclosures neutrally describe product environmental attributes in standard formats, but without any rating. Buildings and the Environment Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) describe the full life-cycle environmental impacts of building materials, from materials extraction to end of life.  Energy consumption  Contribution to global warming  Fresh water and other materials consumption  Air and water pollution impacts  Material waste generation Buildings and the Environment Environmental Building Declarations (EBDs) provide the same kind of life- cycle environmental impacts disclosure for whole buildings. By applying consistent methodologies, EPDs and EBDs allow meaningful comparison of environmental impacts between different products or different building designs. Buildings and the Environment Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) The comprehensive accounting of environmental impacts of materials and products throughout the product life cycle. Used to produce EPDs and EBDs. Buildings and the Environment Cradle-to-grave analysis  Begins with extraction, continues through processing, construction, and use, and finishes with end-of- life disposal or reuse. Cradle-to-gate analysis  Ends when material leaves factory, excluding transportation to construction site, installation, use, and end-of-life. Buildings and the Environment Example, from two exterior decking EPDs (1 m2, cradle-to-grave analysis): Red cedar decking  Global warming: 8 kg CO2 eq  Nonrenewable energy consumption: 70 MJ Wood-plastic composite decking  Global warming: 40 kg CO2 eq  Nonrenewable energy consumption: 500 MJ Buildings and the Environment Health Product Declarations Provide information about material ingredients and associated human health hazards  Persistent toxic compounds  Carcinogens  Respiratory irritants  Neurotoxins  etc. Buildings and the Environment Other Sustainable Attributes Recycled materials divert waste from incinerators or landfills. Bio-based materials, derived from agricultural or animal processes, can be biodegradable and carbon neutral. Rapidly renewable materials avoid depletion of nonrenewable resources. Regional materials reduce transportation costs and contribute to local economies. Buildings and the Environment Impacts of Sustainable Buildings Sustainable buildings exhibit, on average, a 25%-35% improvement in energy consumption over traditional Seattle City Hall, LEED Gold, Bassetti Architects/Bohlin Cywinski Jackson Photo by Rootology buildings. But individual buildings vary greatly. Buildings and the Environment Building commissioning (Cx) is the process of defining building performance objectives and ensuring these objectives are achieved in the finished building. Integrated, whole-building Cx is a necessary part of sustainable design and construction, to ensure that finished buildings meet the stated goals for energy performance and other criteria. 1 MAKING BUILDINGS THE WORK OF THE DESIGN PROFESSIONAL The Work of the Design Professional Design Professional The architect, engineer, and others on the design team translate the owner’s building ideas and needs into a complete design. Construction documents describe the building to be built, consisting of:  Graphic construction drawings  Written specifications The Work of the Design Professional Environmental and Land Use Regulations Environmental impact assessments address potential impacts on:  Water resources, natural habitats, protected species, air and water pollution  Municipal water and sewer systems, transportation systems  Urban open space, community facilities, neighborhood character, and more The Work of the Design Professional Land use (zoning) regulations:  Allowed activity types, such as industrial, commercial, residential  Extent of land that may be covered by buildings  Distance from buildings to adjacent properties  Parking  Building heights  Fire district requirements, etc. The Work of the Design Professional Building Codes Regulate life safety and health:  Fire safety  Emergency egress  Construction quality  Structural integrity  Durability  Livability The Work of the Design Professional and more:  Energy conservation  Health codes  Electrical/mechanical codes  Fire codes (building operations)  Accessibility for physically handicapped  … The Work of the Design Professional Model Codes: Standardized codes, adopted and put into legal effect by local jurisdictions Canada: National Building Code of Canada U.S.:  International Building Code (IBC)  International Residential Code (IRC) The Work of the Design Professional IBC and IRC are the models for most U.S. local building codes. IRC  One- and two-family homes  Townhouses  3 stories maximum height IBC: All buildings not covered by the IRC The Work of the Design Professional IBC defines Occupancies, activities within the building, reflecting differing degrees of life and fire safety hazard: A Assembly I Institutional B Business M Mercantile E Educational R Residential F Factory S Storage H High hazard U Utility The Work of the Design Professional Construction Types define building systems with varying degrees of resistance to fire  Type I – Most resistant  Type II  Type III  Type IV  Type V - Least resistant The Work of the Design Professional Combustibility Type I Noncombustible materials only Type II (steel, concrete, masonry) Type III Noncombustible exterior walls and combustible (wood) interior Type IV materials Type V Fully combustible The Work of the Design Professional Fire Resistance (endurance) Structural Frame Fire-Resistance Rating Type I 2 – 3 hours Type II 0 – 1 hour Type III 0 – 1 hour Type IV Heavy Timber, Mass Timber 0 – 3 hours Type V 0 – 1 hour The Work of the Design Professional Together, Occupancy and Construction Type determine allowable building height and area:  Occupancies with greater occupancy hazard are limited to smaller buildings.  Construction Types that are more resistant to fire allow bigger buildings. The Work of the Design Professional Combustible Type V construction (wood light frame) over noncombustible (cast-in-place concrete) Type I construction. The Work of the Design Professional Occupancy A-1, Construction Type II-B: 55 feet in height, 2 stories, 8500 sf per floor. The Work of the Design Professional More fire-resistant construction types, generally toward the left in the table, allow larger buildings. Less hazardous occupancies, such as B, allow larger buildings than others more hazardous, like A. The Work of the Design Professional Allowable height and area are also adjusted for:  Automatic fire sprinklers  Better fire fighter access around building The Work of the Design Professional Access Regulations: Equal access to facilities for persons with disabilities:  Building code accessibility requirements  Federal civil rights laws such as Americans with Disabilities Act, Fair Housing Act, and others The Work of the Design Professional Construction Standards  Define good practice  Ensure minimum quality  Encourage standardization and efficiency in methods The Work of the Design Professional Independent consensus organizations  ASTM International: Materials and methods standards Government funded agencies  U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) Trade and professional organizations  American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) The Work of the Design Professional Organizing Construction Information MasterFormat  Numbering system for the organization of construction materials and systems  Developed by Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC)  50 major Divisions The Work of the Design Professional MasterFormat Division 00 – Procurement and Division 21 – Fire Suppression Contracting Requirements Division 22 – Plumbing Division 01 – General Requirements Division 23 – Heating, Ventilating, and Air Division 02 – Existing Conditions Conditioning Division 03 – Concrete Division 25 – Integrated Automation Division 04 – Masonry Division 26 – Electrical Division 05 - Metals Division 27 – Communications Division 06 – Wood, Plastics, and Division 28 – Electronic Safety and Composites Security Division 07 – Thermal and Moisture Division 31 – Earthwork Protection Division 32 – Exterior Improvements Division 08 – Openings Division 33 – Utilities Division 09 – Finishes Division 10 – Specialties (This list includes only Divisions most Division 11 – Equipment relevant to this text and building Division 12 – Furnishings construction in general) Division 13 – Special Construction Division 14 – Conveying Equipment The Work of the Design Professional Sections within Divisions define the work of individual trades or suppliers. E.g.: Division 05 – Metals Section 05 10 00 – Structural Steel Framing Section 05 21 00 – Steel Joist Framing Section 05 31 00 – Steel Decking Section 05 40 00 – Cold-Formed Metal Framing Section 05 50 00 – Metal Fabrications Section 05 51 33 – Metal Ladders Section 05 51 33.13 Vertical Metal Ladders The Work of the Design Professional Provides the organization for construction specifications, the written portion of construction documents. Also used to:  Organize construction cost data  Organize trade and technical literature  Sometimes, to systematize notes on construction drawings The Work of the Design Professional Other Organizational Systems CSI/CSC UniFormat Classification of building elements by functional groups, such as substructure, shell, interiors, services, etc. The Work of the Design Professional UniFormat Level 1 categories:  A Substructure  B Shell  C Interiors  D Services  E Equipment and Furnishings  F Special Construction and Demolition  G Building Sitework  Z General The Work of the Design Professional Classes and subclasses for greater definition: Level 1: B Shell Level 2: B10 Superstructure Level 3: B1010 Floor Construction Level 4: B1010.10 Floor Structural Frame Level 5: B1010.10.WF Wood Floor Framing Etc. The Work of the Design Professional UniFormat is used for:  Early stage design and pricing  Performance specification of systems  Organization of construction data in building information models The Work of the Design Professional OmniClass A broadly flexible system for organizing construction information according to any number of schemes, such as function, form, elements, work results, phases, properties, etc. The Work of the Design Professional OmniClass Tables (15 total):  Table 13: Spaces by Function  Table 21: Elements (like Uniformat)  Table 22: Work Results (like MasterFormat)  Table 23: Products  Table 31: Phases  Table 32: Services  Table 35: Tools  Table 41: Materials  Table 49: Properties The Work of the Design Professional Information standards matter because of increasing:  Digital modeling  Complexity of information  Sharing of data between disciplines  Extending data usage beyond the construction phase 1 MAKING BUILDINGS THE WORK OF THE CONSTRUCTION PROFESSIONAL The Work of the Construction Professional Providing Construction Services Allocation of responsibilities and risks among major parties:  Design team: architects, engineers, and other consultants  Construction team: General contractor, subcontractors, suppliers  Owner group: Developer/owner, financers, user groups The Work of the Construction Professional Project Delivery Methods Design/Bid/Build  Owner hires separate design and construction teams. The Work of the Construction Professional  Separate entities provide checks and balances  Difficult to integrate construction expertise into design The Work of the Construction Professional Design/Build  Owner hires single design and construction entity. The Work of the Construction Professional  Fosters coordination between A/E and GC  Single point of accountability for owner  Fewer checks and balances The Work of the Construction Professional Construction Management  Owner hires independent CM to oversee design and construction services provided by multiple entities. The Work of the Construction Professional  Construction expertise is available to owner throughout project  Most commonly associated with large scale, complex projects The Work of the Construction Professional  CM at risk: Aspects of construction manager and general contractor  Turnkey construction: Single entity provides financing as well as construction services  Single-purpose entity: combines owner, design, and construction teams into one legal entity  And many more variations… The Work of the Construction Professional Paying for Construction Services Fixed fee (lump sum)  Owner pays an agreed, fixed amount for work to be performed.  GC assumes most risk or potential reward for unplanned construction costs or savings. The Work of the Construction Professional Fixed fee (lump sum)  Best suited to projects where scope of work is well defined before construction starts. (If scope is unknown, it is difficult to determine what the fixed, full cost should be.) The Work of the Construction Professional Cost Plus a Fee  Owner pays GC’s direct costs plus an added fee.  Owner assumes more cost risk/savings reward potential. The Work of the Construction Professional Cost Plus a Fee  Well suited to projects where scope is not fully defined when construction begins.  Adding a guaranteed maximum price (GMAX, GMP) limits the maximum cost and shifts some cost risk back toward the contractor. The Work of the Construction Professional Other types of risk allocation:  Incentive provisions financially reward contractor for timely completion of cost savings.  Surety bonds, purchased by owner, protect against contractor default. The Work of the Construction Professional Construction Scheduling Understanding the interdependencies in time and space between parts of the building is essential to planning the construction project. The Work of the Construction Professional Sequential Construction  Each major phase begins only after the preceding phase is complete.  Design is completed before construction begins. The Work of the Construction Professional Phased Construction  Design and construction phases overlap.  Aim is to reduce total project duration. The Work of the Construction Professional  Sequential construction is simpler to manage.  Phased construction requires closer coordination between design and construction activities.  Phased construction can introduce additional risks if elements built early come into conflict with later design decisions. The Work of the Construction Professional  Sequential construction is traditionally associated with design/bid/build construction.  Phased construction is most naturally suited to design/build and construction management project delivery, where construction expertise is available during the design phases of the project. The Work of the Construction Professional Gantt Chart  Represents project tasks or phases on a horizontal timeline  Provide an easy to understand picture of a project schedule and relationships between phases. The Work of the Construction Professional Critical Path Method (CPM)  Analyzes task dependencies  The critical path is the sequence of tasks that determines the least amount of time in which a project can be completed. The Work of the Construction Professional Managing Construction The general contractor:  Oversees construction  Controls the project site  Manages trades and suppliers  Coordinates communications between construction team and owner, designer The Work of the Construction Professional Managing Construction  filing construction permits  securing the project site  providing temporary power and water  setting up office trailers and support facilities  providing insurance coverage for the work in progress  managing personnel on site  maintaining a safe work environment  stockpiling materials  performing testing and quality control  providing site surveying and engineering  arranging for cranes and other construction machinery The Work of the Construction Professional  providing temporary structures and weather protection  disposing or recycling of construction waste soliciting the work of subtrades and coordinating their efforts  submitting product samples and technical information to the design team for review  maintaining accurate records of the construction as it proceeds  monitoring costs and schedules  managing changes to the work  protecting completed work  and more… Trends in the Delivery of Design and Construction Services Trends  Fostering collaboration between owner/contractor/designer entities: e.g., integrated project delivery  Improving productivity: lean construction, vertical integration of services  Advances in information technology: building information modeling (BIM), advanced computation, etc.