Social Psychology Chapter 1-5 PDF

Social Psychology 1. Milgram’s Obedience Study & The Good Samaritan Study: The Power of the Situation Milgram’s Obedience Study (1961): This landmark experiment by Stanley Milgram explored how far ordinary people would go in obeying an authority figure, even when it meant inflictin...

Social Psychology 1. Milgram’s Obedience Study & The Good Samaritan Study: The Power of the Situation Milgram’s Obedience Study (1961): This landmark experiment by Stanley Milgram explored how far ordinary people would go in obeying an authority figure, even when it meant inflicting harm on another person. Participants (teachers) were instructed by an experimenter to administer increasingly severe electric shocks to a person (learner) for giving wrong answers in a memory test. Despite the learner's apparent distress, the majority of participants continued to administer shocks, showing that authority figures can have a profound influence on behavior. The study highlighted that situational factors (e.g., the authority figure's presence and the laboratory setting) can lead individuals to act in ways that contradict their personal morals and ethical values. Good Samaritan Study (1973): This experiment by John Darley and Daniel Batson involved seminary students who were either in a hurry or had plenty of time to get to a lecture. On the way, they encountered someone in need of help (a person slumped in an alley). The study found that those who were rushed were significantly less likely to oJer help than those with time. This highlighted the power of time pressure as a situational factor influencing helping behavior and the context in which people act. 2. Fundamental Attribution Error Definition: This is the tendency to overestimate the role of personal traits and underestimate the influence of situational factors when explaining others' behaviors. For instance, if someone cuts you oJ in traJic, you might assume they are rude (personal trait), while overlooking possible situational explanations (e.g., they might be rushing due to an emergency). Example: When a colleague misses a deadline, you might assume they are lazy or unorganized, rather than considering that they might have been dealing with a personal crisis, illness, or overwhelming workload. 3. Gestalt Psychology Definition: Gestalt psychology focuses on understanding objects and events as whole forms, rather than breaking them down into parts. It emphasizes how humans naturally organize visual and social stimuli into coherent, unified wholes. Relevance to Social Behavior: Gestalt psychology is useful for understanding how we perceive social interactions. For example, when we observe someone’s behavior, we often interpret it in a holistic way, considering the person’s entire context, background, and intentions, rather than isolating individual actions or traits. 4. Channel Factors & Nudges Channel Factors: These are small situational factors that can significantly influence behavior. For example, studies show that the design of an organ donation system (opt-in vs. opt-out) can dramatically alter donation rates. Default settings, such as automatically enrolling people in organ donation unless they opt out, can significantly increase participation rates. Nudges: A concept from behavioral economics, nudges are subtle changes in the way options are presented to people that can guide their decisions without limiting  freedom of choice. For instance, oJering healthier foods at eye-level in a grocery store or framing a decision as a gain ("You can save $5 if you opt for the annual plan") can encourage beneficial behavior. 5. Construals Definition: Construals refer to the way individuals interpret or make sense of their social world. It involves the cognitive processes of attribution (why people behave as they do) and perspective-taking (how one perceives others’ intentions). Example: When someone cuts you oJ in traJic, your construal might be that they are rude and inconsiderate, or you might interpret their behavior as a result of being in a hurry. 6. Schemas Definition: Schemas are cognitive frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information about the world. They provide mental templates for understanding and predicting social situations. Relation to Stereotypes: Schemas often involve generalizations about groups, leading to stereotypes. For example, if you have a schema that "all teenagers are rebellious," this could lead to biased expectations of behavior. Formation: Schemas are developed over time based on personal experiences, cultural influences, and social learning. When Violated: When experiences contradict existing schemas, individuals might experience confusion, cognitive dissonance, or a reevaluation of their beliefs. 7. Evolutionary Psychology and Social Behavior Definition: Evolutionary psychology explains human behavior through the lens of natural selection, suggesting that certain social behaviors evolved because they enhanced survival or reproductive success. Key Concepts: o Natural Selection: Behaviors that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed down. For example, cooperation and altruism can be explained through kin selection (helping relatives) or reciprocal altruism (helping others in the expectation of future help). o Cross-Cultural Behaviors: Universal social behaviors such as language, empathy, and bonding suggest these traits may have evolutionary origins, as they help humans navigate social environments and build cooperative groups. 8. Brain and Social Behavior Shared Brain Regions with Mammals: The limbic system (emotion), amygdala (fear), and hippocampus (memory) are critical in processing emotions and memories, suggesting that basic emotional responses are shared with other mammals. Unique to Humans: The prefrontal cortex, responsible for reasoning, decision- making, and complex social behavior, is more developed in humans and allows for nuanced social interactions, planning, and self-regulation. 9. Naturalistic Fallacy  Definition: This is the mistaken belief that what is "natural" is inherently good or morally acceptable. People may argue that behaviors or traits seen in nature (such as aggression or inequality) are "natural" and thus justifiable. Relation to Prejudice: The naturalistic fallacy is often used to justify prejudicial or discriminatory behaviors, such as claiming that certain social hierarchies are "natural" and therefore morally acceptable. 10. Automatic vs. Conscious Processing Automatic Processing: Fast, unconscious, and often habitual. This includes quick judgments and responses based on previous experiences and stereotypes. It operates with little to no cognitive eJort. Conscious Processing: Slow, deliberate, and requires more cognitive resources. This type of processing involves critical thinking and reflection. Application: Stereotypes may automatically influence judgments, but individuals can override them through conscious processing, reducing bias and making more thoughtful decisions. 11. Individualistic vs. Collectivistic Cultures Individualistic Cultures: Emphasize personal goals, self-reliance, and independence (e.g., U.S., Western Europe). Collectivistic Cultures: Focus on group harmony, interdependence, and social roles (e.g., China, Japan). Studies: o Kim & Markus (1999): Found that Americans preferred unique pens, reflecting individualism, while East Asians chose pens that were more common, reflecting collectivism. o Wang et al. (2017): Showed cultural diJerences in brain activity related to social behaviors, with East Asians displaying stronger neural responses to group settings. o Nicole Stephens: Research found that working-class individuals (who may prioritize interdependence and social harmony) tend to value conformity, while middle-class individuals (who may emphasize independence) tend to value uniqueness. 12. Tight vs. Loose Societies Tight Societies: These societies have strict norms and less tolerance for deviance. Examples include Japan or Saudi Arabia. Loose Societies: These societies have more relaxed norms and greater tolerance for individuality and variation. Examples include the U.S. or Brazil. Emotions 1. Definition of Emotion Emotion: A brief, intense experience triggered by a cognitive appraisal of an event. Emotions are often accompanied by physiological changes (e.g., heart rate, sweating) and behavioral expressions (e.g., facial expressions, body posture). 2. Cognitive Appraisals  Definition: Cognitive appraisals are personal evaluations of events and situations that trigger emotional responses. They help determine whether something is threatening, rewarding, or neutral, thus shaping the emotional response. 3. Mood vs. Emotion vs. Mood Disorder Emotion: A short-term, intense response to a specific stimulus. Mood: A more persistent emotional state that lasts longer than an emotion but is less intense (e.g., feeling depressed for several days). Mood Disorder: A prolonged and maladaptive mood state, such as depression or bipolar disorder, which disrupts daily functioning. 4. Components of Emotion 1. Subjective Experience: The internal, personal feeling of the emotion (e.g., "I feel sad"). 2. Physiological Response: The bodily reactions associated with emotions, such as increased heart rate or sweating (e.g., fight-or-flight response). 3. Behavioral Expression: The outward display of emotion, such as facial expressions, body language, and actions (e.g., smiling, frowning). 5. Evolutionary Perspective on Emotions Support: Emotions have adaptive functions for survival and social cohesion. Universal emotional expressions (e.g., smiling, fear) across cultures suggest an evolutionary basis. Animal Emotions: Many animals, especially primates, exhibit similar emotional expressions, suggesting a shared evolutionary origin for basic emotions. Blind Athletes: Blind athletes exhibit facial expressions of joy, sadness, and frustration during competitions, indicating that emotional expression is innate rather than learned. 6. Oxytocin Role: Known as the "bonding hormone," oxytocin is associated with feelings of trust, empathy, and social bonding. Studies: Intranasal oxytocin increases cooperation in group tasks but may also increase in-group favoritism, suggesting that it strengthens social bonds within groups while potentially enhancing intergroup bias. 7. Cultural Variation in Emotions Focal Emotions: DiJerent cultures emphasize specific emotions. For example, honor cultures might prioritize pride and shame, while others may emphasize more individual emotions like guilt or embarrassment. Ideal Emotions: Western cultures often value excitement and passion, while East Asian cultures may place greater emphasis on calmness and harmony. 8. Broaden-and-Build Hypothesis Definition: This theory, proposed by Barbara Fredrickson, posits that positive emotions broaden one’s thought-action repertoire, leading to creative problem- solving, greater social connections, and improved well-being. Studies: Positive emotions can lead to increased cognitive flexibility, fostering greater resilience and the building of enduring social resources. 9. Abective Forecasting  Definition: The process of predicting one’s future emotional states in response to specific events or decisions. Biases: o Immune Neglect: Underestimating our emotional resilience. We often think negative events will aJect us more than they actually do. o Focalism: Overemphasizing the impact of one event while neglecting other factors. o Duration Neglect: Overestimating the length of time an emotion will last, leading to inaccurate predictions of emotional outcomes. 10. Happiness Factors Contributors: Research consistently shows that relationships, meaningful work, gratitude, and mindfulness are key factors contributing to long-term happiness. Positive social connections, having a sense of purpose, and practicing gratitude lead to increased well-being.