Chapter 7 Engineering and the Environment PDF

Engineering Ethics, 6e Chapter 7 Engineering and the Environment © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  Main Ideas in This Chapter (1 of 2) The modern environmental movement began in the 1960s and 70s. It has not only influenced law and policy throughout the...

Engineering Ethics, 6e Chapter 7 Engineering and the Environment © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  Main Ideas in This Chapter (1 of 2) The modern environmental movement began in the 1960s and 70s. It has not only influenced law and policy throughout the world but also engineering practice. Life cycle analysis (or life cycle assessment) (LCA) is a useful basis for many types of engineering that affect the environment. Many formulations of the ideal of sustainability mandate care for the earth’s resources for the sake of present and future generations and a economic development in less economically developed societies. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  Main Ideas in This Chapter (2 of 2) Business firms exhibit a variety of attitudes toward environmental concerns, but some give evidence of a genuinely progressive attitude. The professional virtue of respect for the natural world should be cultivated, because it can motivate environmental concern on the part of engineers. Student members of organizations such as Engineers for a Sustainable World have probably already developed this virtue. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Aberdeen Three (case 1) The Aberdeen proving ground is a US Army facility part of which was used for chemical weapons development, testing and storage. Flammable, cancer causing and lethal chemicals were improperly stored and some toxic substances leaked into nearby river. On 1988 three chemical engineers were criminally indicted and convicted for illegally handling, storing and disposing of hazardous wastes in violation of the Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 4 Aberdeen Three Although the three did not actually handle the chemicals they were the managers with the ultimate responsibility for the violations. Investigators of the Department of Justice concluded that no one above them was sufficiently aware of the problem at the development plant. All three were found in the court to be guilty of violating RCRA since they were responsible for serious environmental pollution. © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 5 Aberdeen Three Engineers have contributed to the environmental problems. Engineers are an essential part of their solution. What obligation should the engineering profession, as opposed to engineers as private citizens, assume regarding the environment ? ASCE, IEEE and ASME codes refer to the engineers responsibility towards environment when human health and welfare is an issue, when human health is not an issue and when addressing sustainable development. ASCE revised code (1996) stressed reference to environment. © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 6 Aberdeen Three Canon 1 says: "Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their professional duties". Under Canon 1 items c, d, e and f address the engineers responsibility to the environment. Items c and d are requirements while items e and f are recommendations. c. Engineers whose professional judgment is overruled under circumstances where the safety, health and welfare of the public are endangered, or the principles of sustainable development ignored, shall inform their clients or employees of the possible consequences. d. Engineers who have knowledge or reason to believe that another person or firm may be in violation of any of the provisions of Canon 1 shall present such information to the proper authority in writing and shall cooperate with the proper authority in furnishing such further information or assistance as may be required. e. Engineers should seek opportunities to be of constructive service in civic affairs and work for the advancement of the safety, health and well-being of their communities, and the protection of the environment through the practice of sustainable development. f. Engineers should be committed to improving the environment by adherence to the principles of sustainable development so as to enhance the quality of life of the general public. © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 7  Engineering and the Environment The impact of technology on the environment should be a central concern of engineers because engineering has more effect on the environment than any other major profession. Technology, which to a large extent is developed by engineers, has undoubtedly produced many environmental problems, such as air and water pollution, the destruction of wetlands, toxic chemicals, and many others. Engineers can often modify technologies or create new ones that counteract these ill effects and enhance the quality of the environment and of human life. If engineers have contributed to some environmental problems, they can also contribute to their solution. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Searching for a Criterion for "clean" Including environment in the code raised a controversy over the definition of environmental purity. How do we determine what is clean ? How clean is clean ? © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 10 What does the Law Say ? In the US before late 1960s an individual who wants to combat pollution was usually forced to appeal to the common law if no single individual is harmed by pollution. In 1969 the "National Environmental Policy Act" was passed. One of its best known mandates is the environmental impact statement for government projects affecting the environment. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was then created to enforce the mandates. In 1970 Occupational safety and health Act (OSHA) was passed. In 1970 Clean Air Act was passed then amended in 1977 and 1990. In 1990 the Pollution Prevention Act establishes pollution prevention as a national objective. © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 11 The Courts on the Environment US supreme court found that "safe" does not entail risk free. © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 12 How Clean is Clean Any rational criterion for clean environment must take into account both. 1. The need to protect the health of workers and the general public. 2. The need to protect the financial viability of industries on which the workers and the general public depend. © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 13 What Is Clean Enough? Applying Environmental Law (1 of 5) Several common-sense criteria exist. The sixth, however, is the most plausible: 1. According to the comparative criterion, an aspect of the environment is sufficiently clean if and only if it imposes no greater threat to human life or health than do other risks that most people might consider reasonable. However, the public does not understand the seriousness of certain risks they accept and data about comparative risks are often difficult to obtain. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. What Is Clean Enough? Applying Environmental Law (2 of 5) 2. According to the normalcy criterion, an aspect of the environment is sufficiently clean if and only if any pollutants present in it are normally present in it to the same degree. However, if the pollutants present in a river or the air are “normally” present, they could still pose a threat to human and animal health. 3. According to the optimal pollution reduction criterion, an aspect of the environment is sufficiently clean if and only if funds required to reduce pollution further could be used in other ways that would produce more overall human well-being. This criterion could require all available funds to be spent on a single environmental remediation project if it were serious enough, leaving many other problems unaddressed. 4. According to the maximum protection criterion, an aspect of the environment is sufficiently clean if and only if any identifiable risk from its pollution that poses a threat to human health has been eliminated, up to the limits of technology and the ability to enforce. This criterion could require all available funds to be spent on a single environmental remediation. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  What Is Clean Enough? Applying Environmental Law (4 of 5) 5. According to the demonstrable harm criterion, an aspect of the environment is sufficiently clean if and only if every pollutant that is demonstrably harmful to human health has been eliminated. This criterion eliminates not only considerations of cost but also considerations of technical feasibility. It also requires proof of harm to human health, which can be difficult to obtain. 6. According to the degree of harm criterion, an aspect of the environment is sufficiently clean if and only if cost is not a factor in removing clear and pressing threats to human health, but when the degree of harm is uncertain, economic factors may be considered. This criterion may suggest the best balance of cost and health considerations and seems to be the closest to the position taken by many court decisions. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  Four Phases of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) 1. Goal and Scope. Defining the product or process, the context of the assessment, the boundaries of the analysis (geographical area, temporal boundaries of the study, and boundaries between this analysis and related life cycles of other systems), and the environmental effects. 2. Inventory Analysis. Relevant inputs and outputs of a product or process in terms of the energy, water, and materials used and identification and quantification of releases. 3. Impact Assessment. Identification and quantification of the most significant environmental impacts associated with the product, including resource use, human health and ecological consequences, and greenhouse gas emissions. 4. Interpretation. Evaluation of the results of the first three phases, along with evaluations of the assumptions made and the degree of uncertainty assumed. The best product or process is then selected. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Here's an example of how LCA can be applied: a company wants to assess the environmental impact of producing a new smartphone. The following are the steps that could be taken: © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  1.Goal and scope definition: The goal of the assessment is to evaluate the environmental impact of producing the new smartphone. The scope includes the entire life cycle of the smartphone, from raw material extraction to disposal, and the functional unit is defined as the production of one smartphone. 2.Life cycle inventory: Data is collected on the inputs How LCA and outputs of the smartphone throughout its entire life cycle. This includes the raw materials can be used in production (e.g., metals, plastics, glass), the energy used in manufacturing, transportation, and applied: distribution, and the waste generated during production and disposal. 3.Life cycle impact assessment: The environmental impacts associated with the life cycle inventory are evaluated. This includes assessing the potential impacts on human health (e.g., exposure to toxic chemicals), ecosystems (e.g., pollution of air and water), and natural resources (e.g., depletion of non-renewable resources). 4.Interpretation: The results of the life cycle inventory and impact assessment are interpreted to draw conclusions about the environmental performance of the smartphone. Areas for improvement may be identified, such as using more sustainable materials, reducing energy use during manufacturing, and improving the disposal process. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. By conducting an LCA, the company can make more informed decisions about the environmental impact of producing the smartphone and identify areas for improvement to reduce its overall environmental footprint © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. The weaknesses of using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 1.Time-consuming process: LCA is a long and time-consuming process that requires the collection of accurate data, particularly in the inventory analysis phase where the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases must be included. 2.Difficulty obtaining reliable data: Obtaining useful and reliable data for an LCA can be problematic since only quantifiable data can be used, and data collection is the most resource-consuming part of the process. The data used in many LCAs can also be questioned, and some sources may be reluctant to give out full information. 3.Inconclusive comparisons: Comparisons, which are one of the most important uses of LCAs, can often be inconclusive since assumptions about the life span of a product are often conjectural, and claims of accuracy are sometimes excessive. Despite these weaknesses, LCA is still considered an essential tool in environmental impact evaluation, but it is important to keep the limitations in mind. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Despite the need for a tool such as LCA, it has multiple weaknesses. First, a proper LCA is a long and timeconsuming process. In the inventory analysis phase, the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases must be included. The data collection forms must be properly designed, and of course the data must be accurate. Data collection is the most resource-consuming part of the process. In the impact assessment phase, the potential human and ecological effect of the energy, water, and materials that are identified in the inventory analysis must be carefully addressed. Second, there are many problems with obtaining useful and reliable data for an LCA. Only quantifiable data can be used. Critics argue that the data used in many LCAs can be questioned. Sometimes the data are obtained from confidential industry sources and are proprietary, so the sources are reluctant to give out full information. Assumptions about the life span of a product are often conjectural. Claims of accuracy are sometimes excessive. For example, some data are given with four decimal places usually far beyond verifiable accuracy.15 Third, comparisons one of the most important uses of LCAs are often inconclusive. For example, according to one writer, disposable diapers produce 90 times more solid waste, but cloth diapers generate 10 times more water pollution and consume 3 times as much energy.16 How should one decide whether disposable or cloth diapers are more harmful to the environment? Despite these weaknesses, LCA is usually considered an essential tool in evaluating the environmental impact of buildings, products, and processes. The limitations, however, should be kept in mind. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Sustainable Development "... Development without endangering the capacity of natural systems to absorb the effects of human activities and without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs and aspirations (ASCE). Essentially it requires healthy development for present and future generations. According to the ASCE Board of Direction, sustainable development is “the process of applying natural, human, and economic resources to enhance the safety, welfare, and quality of life for all of society while maintaining the availability of remaining natural resources.” © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 24 What Is Sustainable Development? “Sustainable development,” according to the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)— the Brundtland Report—is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” The Brundtland definition can be seen as a political compromise between these competing groups and interests. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Health vs. Non-health related environmental concerns Examples a. when polluting the air water or soil introduces carcinogens (health related concern). b. when constructing a project on a coastal area disturbs birds habitate (non- health related concern). © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 26 Instrumental vs. Intrinsic values of nature Examples a. Trees, rivers, animals and other natural object have value only when they are used by human beings (instrumental value). b. Natural objects have intrinsic value (i.e. value in themselves) apart from human use. They are morally considerable. Although it appears that more industries are moving toward the "enlightened environmental management" attitude, many have not yet embraced it. So it seems fair to say that not all leaders of business and nonbusiness organizations are sympathetic with environmental concerns. © 2019 Cengage. ENG 310 All Rights Reserved. / Hasan Al-Sanad 27  Five Goals for Sustainable Development According to the Brundtland Report The WCED’s Brundtland Report features many elements, but the basic fault line is clear: Human-centered concerns: 1. Economic growth 2. Fair distribution of resources to sustain economic development 3. More democratic political systems Environmental concerns: 4. Adoption of lifestyles that are more compatible with living within the planet’s ecological means 5. Population levels that are more compatible with the planet’s ecological means. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Are Sustainability and Continued Economic Development Really Compatible? (1 of 3) By combining the ideas of sustainability and development, the WCED implies we can have both sustainability and continued economic development. Some have denied this possibility: 1. Even maintaining that the term “sustainable development” is a combination of two incompatible ideas given that that the earth has a limited supply of nonrenewable resources, which is incompatible with the increasing needs of underdeveloped countries. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Are Sustainability and Continued Economic Development Really Compatible? (2 of 3) 2. The WCED’s reference to controlling population and changing lifestyles is idealistic and difficult to achieve. The best route to combining sustainability for future generations with improving the lot of the world’s poor might indeed be: To limit or reduce the human population and To change our consumption-driven lifestyle and our present modes of manufacturing, so that, instead of needing to take new materials from the earth, old materials would be reused. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Are Sustainability and Continued Economic Development Really Compatible? (3 of 3) 3. The connection between equity and democracy in our own generation with sustainability for the future is not obvious (e.g., Why are equitable distribution of goods and democratic forms of government necessary for sustainability?) © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Two Ways of Arguing Sustainable Development 1. Anthropocentric, that is, from the standpoint of the welfare of human beings, whether this be of the poor in developing countries, the more well-off in developed countries, or future generations, whether poor or wealthy. 2. Ecocentric, that is, made from the standpoint of the “interests” of the natural world, apart from considerations of human welfare. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  The Utilitarian Argument for Sustainable Development (1 of 2) From the utilitarian standpoint, future generations of humans (and even animals) should be included with the present generation in the audience over which utility is maximized. The utilitarian formulation of our moral obligation raises several questions: First, what does this argument imply about the use of nonrenewable resources? If we use any nonrenewable resources at all, we cannot leave as much to future generations as we have ourselves. The utilitarian argument for sustainable development, then, can imply that we should reduce the use of new nonrenewable resources to zero, which may be impossible. Second, how can we know the needs of future generations? To be sure, technological and social developments might so modify the needs of future people that any prediction of future requirements could be wrong. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Respect for Persons From the RP standpoint, we have an obligation, insofar as it is possible, to respect equally the rights of all people. This includes the rights of both present and future generations. The rights most relevant to sustainability are probably the rights to life and physical integrity, the rights approach raises this question: If developed countries have achieved their present state of material prosperity by exploiting the resources of the earth, don t underdeveloped countries have the same right? Is it fair for developed countries to impose on underdeveloped countries restrictions that they themselves did not follow? A possible creative middle way is for developed countries to assist underdeveloped countries in complying with the same standards of sustainable development they impose on themselves, although this solution is controversial. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. At any rate, both utilitarian and RP morality suggest reasons for believing that we have moral obligations to the future. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. virtue ethics From the standpoint of virtue ethics, the virtues of care and respect for nature come into special importance. Care should extend to all members of the present generation as well as future generations, especially care for the poor and disadvantaged. Since care must be extended to all of these groups equally, this approach can justify balancing the application of care to these three groups. In addition, respect for the natural world can be a powerful motivator of environmental concern. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  Cradle to Grave: Nonrenewable Resources According to the classic definition of sustainability in the Brundtland Report humans should not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Taken in its most literal sense, this implies that humans must live in such a way that human and other forms of life can live on the planet indefinitely. This implies that, as a minimum: Humans must not pollute the earth in such a way that life processes can no longer flourish, and that Humans must not consume nonrenewable natural resources in such a way that they are exhausted and not available for future generations. At the present time, neither of these criteria is being satisfied. Regarding the use of nonrenewable resources, programs to minimize the use of new nonrenewable resources are often combined with attempts to reduce the material disposed of in dumps (the “grave”), including toxic substances. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  Cradle-to-Cradle Sustainability A more visionary approach to sustainability follows natural processes. This approach, sometimes called cradle to cradle (C2C), is often described as an application of biomimicry. Its advocates say that natural processes, which run on sunlight, are highly efficient, using only the energy they need. Further, nature recycles everything. There is, according to this view, no such thing as waste in nature. Cooperation, mutual dependence, and diversity are everywhere apparent. Although these claims about natural processes can be criticized (e.g., most sunlight is wasted), the approach is highly influential and its adherents claim it should be the basis of true sustainability. The C2C approach is for the most part still only an ideal, but some manufacturing processes may be approaching the ideal ever more closely. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  Three Industry Attitudes toward the Environment (1 of 3) The subminimal attitude is associated with minimal compliance with environmental regulations and sometimes with doing even less than what is required. Firms that adopt this attitude often have no full-time personnel assigned to environmental issues, devote minimal financial resources to environmental matters, and sometimes refuse to comply with environmental regulations. If it is cheaper to pay the fines than make the mandated changes, this is what they will do. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  Three Industry Attitudes toward the Environment (2 of 3) The minimalist or compliance attitude calls for compliance with governmental regulation as a cost of doing business, but their compliance is often without enthusiasm or commitment. Managers often have a great deal of skepticism about the value of environmental regulations. Nevertheless, these companies usually have established policies that regulate environment-related projects. Managers in this group generally believe that the primary goal of business is to make money and that environmental regulations are merely an impediment to this goal. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.  Three Industry Attitudes toward the Environment (3 of 3) The progressive attitude calls for responsiveness to environmental concerns, usually reflecting the personal commitment of the CEO. The companies have well-staffed environmental divisions, use state-of-the-art equipment, and generally have good relationships with governmental regulators. Managers probably believe that it is in the firm’s long-term interest to go beyond legal requirements, because doing so generates goodwill in the community and avoids lawsuits. More than this, however, they may be genuinely committed to environmental protection and even sustainability, and have set up units devoted to these policies. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Stages in the Development of an Environment-Friendly Firm (1 of 2) 1. Viewing compliance as a challenge to innovate and complying with the most stringent rules, so as to be ahead of other firms when the more stringent rules are enforced and believing that this approach can give them a market advantage. 2. Designing the firm’s own products and services to be more sustainable. 3. Requiring suppliers to make their operations more sustainable by methods such as developing more fuel-efficient vehicles and machines. 4. Turning waste and pollutants into valuable products that can be sold for profit. 5. Questioning the implicit assumptions behind products and services and thereby thinking “outside the box.” (Can we develop waterless detergents?) © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. The CERES Principles The CERES Principles exemplify the progressive attitude toward the environment. Formulated after the oil spill from the Exxon Valdez, they were originally called the Valdez Principles, but later renamed after Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture and fertility. The complete principles can be found at http://www.ceres.org/about-us/our-history/ceres-principles. 1. Protection of the biosphere 2. Sustainable use of natural resources 3. Reduction and disposal of wastes 4. Energy conservation 5. Risk reduction 6. Safe products and services 7. Environmental restoration 8. Informing the public 9. Management commitment 10. Audits and reports © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Engineers for a Sustainable World Engineers for a Sustainable World (ESW) consists of students, university faculty, and professionals who are committed to using their professional talents to creating a more sustainable world. This commitment results in projects on the campus, in local communities, and around the world. Engineers Without Borders (EWB) focuses on working with local organizations in promoting the sustainability aspects of such projects as providing water and food for underdeveloped communities. The academic interest in sustainability must ultimately manifest itself in changes in engineering curricula. Integrating environmental considerations, and especially sustainability considerations, into engineering courses is sometimes challenging, however. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. © 2019 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.