Human Sexuality Research Methods PDF

Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn about how researchers have studied human sexuality in the past and present; - discover the strengths and weaknesses of certain research methods and designs; and find out why psychophysiological approaches are so valuable in studie...

Learning Objectives In this chapter, you will learn about how researchers have studied human sexuality in the past and present; - discover the strengths and weaknesses of certain research methods and designs; and find out why psychophysiological approaches are so valuable in studies of human sexuality. 2 RM Exclusivel Giacomin/Getty Image:  Participating in a Sex Research Study Jamie had noticed that her mood often affected her abil- functioning. “Funny,” she thought, “I've never actually ity to get “turned on.” So, when she saw an advertisement considered the number of times | masturbate in a given on her university's website looking for participants to month, or how many times I've watched pornography in volunteer for a study examining the impact of mood on the past four weeks." sexual arousal, she was curious and cailed the lab to find Upon completing the questionnaires, one of the re- out more. After speaking with a research assistant and searchers led Jamie to the dimly lit testing room that answering some preliminary questions, Jamie agreed to was separate from, but joined to, the office. Her attention participate in a study involving a single two-hour ses- was directed to an examination table and a thermogra- sion during which her sexual arousal would be moni- phy camera. “This camera will remotely detect sexual tored while she watched a series of different film clips. arousal by measuring changes in temperature to your Although a little nervous, she found herself relaxing once genital area,” the researcher explained. “Once you have she met the two friendly women researchers, dressed in undressed from the waist down and have seated your- white lab coats, who welcomed her to their modern and self on the examination table, please put on the headset comfortable-looking office. “I've never done anything to view the different film clips. You will see a travelogue like this before,” Jamie stated, as one of the researchers about Alaska, followed by a sexually explicit film that highlighted how the study would be done. Jamie was im- depicts consensual sexual activities between a woman mediately reassured by the researcher telling her, “You and man. While you are watching the films, the camera are here of your own free will and are welcome to stop will record your genital temperature without ever requir- testing or leave any time. If you ever feel uncomfortable ing physical contact. We also have a lever here that you or distressed, please tell us right away and we will end can move up and down to indicate how sexually aroused the experiment. You are calling the shots, okay?" you feel throughout each film. There is an intercom sys- Jamie listened carefully as the researcher provided tem set up so if you have questions or concerns, you details about the study procedures and went over the can speak out loud and we will be able to respond from informed consent form. She was relieved to hear that the control room we showed you earlier.” After confirm- none of the information or data would identify her to ing that she understood the instructions, Jamie was left anyone outside of the room; she would be identified alone in the room and locked the door before getting un- only by a randomly generated participant number. After dressed from the waist down. She sat herself on the ex- signing the consent form to indicate that she under- amination table and leaned back comfortably as she put stood the purpose and details of the study, Jamie com- on the headset to watch the first video. “Here goes,” she pleted a series of questionnaires on a tablet that asked thought, suddenly very aware of the anticipatory tingling about her mood, sexual experiences, and current sexual feeling in her genital area. Questions for Critical Thought and Reflection 1. How would you feel about participating in a study 3. If you were a researcher, what are some things you such as the one described above? might want to do to make your participants feel more comfortable in a laboratory environment? 2. If you were Jamie, what questions would you have for the researcher? Introduction “Give her mind-blowing orgasms!” “Sex positions that will make you hot AF!” “Every anal sex tip you'll ever need!” Multimedia headlines are filled with tips and tricks to enhance sexual pleasure in both the solitary and partnered context, along with articles on understanding couple dynam- ics, ways to explore one’s sexuality, and generally how to live as one’s best sexual self. Although many of these articles claim to give expert advice, it is seldom apparent whether this information is based on empirical research or personal opinion. This is one of the many reasons why sex research 48 Human Sexuality factual in- is so important. Carefully conducted research enhances our knowledge and provides conduct for formation on sexuality. Despite its importance, sex research can be challenging to re- a number of reasons. For one thing, given the highly sensitive nature of the subject matter, searchers may have difficulty finding participants who are willing to openly and honestly disclose 700 college their thoughts and feelings about their sexual experiences. Indeed, in a study of over anon- students, researchers found that students are more likely to sign up for studies involving questionnaire ymous questionnaires on sexuality than face-to-face interviews or laboratory studies in which more A set of multiple- sexually explicit material would be viewed (Wiederman, 1999). This problem becomes even choice and/or short- pronounced when the researcher is interested in understanding a populatio n of individua ls who answer questions have difficulty with sexuality, which is often the case in clinical sex research. In all cases, the re- designed to obtain specific information. searcher must take many precautions to earn participants’ trust. Perhaps even more difficult than finding willing participants is finding interested partici- random samples pants who are representative of the entire population that the researchers are interested in study- Study participants who have been selected at ing. In order to find a group that represents a wide range of ethnicities, backgrounds, beliefs, and random to accurately experiences, researchers must try as much as possible to use random samples. A related challenge represent the is representing the types of people who are disinclined to volunteer to participate in sex research, population of interest in terms of gender, because there is evidence that individuals who are willing to participate in sex research differ in ethnic, socioeconomic, important ways from individuals who are unwilling to participate (Strassberg & Lowe, 1995). For behavioural, and/or example, volunteers for sex research studies have been found to be more sexually experienced, to have more liberal attitudes toward sexuality, and to have higher levels of sexual self-esteem other characteristics. sexual and sensation-seeking than those who choose not to volunteer for this kind of research (Daw- psychophysiology son et al., 2019; Wiederman, 1999). Furthermore, when researchers examine gender and sexual A branch of sex attraction, a greater proportion of men than women are willing to volunteer for more invasive research that examines the relationship research such as sexual psychophysiology studies (see below) in a laboratory setting. This finding between the is also present when comparing same-gender/sex-attracted to different-gender/sex-attracted indi- physiological (e.g, viduals (Dawson et al., 2019). genital blood flow) In addition, it may be difficult to keep the research free of bias. Recall, from Chapter 1, that and subjective (e.g., ratings of how sexually personal, cultural, religious, and even political ideas about sexuality often influence how sexuality aroused one feels) is defined, which questions are asked, and how information is interpreted. Although responsible components of sexusl researchers try to design studies that will not be affected by personal bias, this is not possible. arousal. Indeed, many forms of bias have, to some extent, affected all sex research, and biases will undoubt- edly continue to shape this research in the future. After all, sex always occurs within a context that is influenced by a complex mixture of forces—interpersonal relationship dynamics, psychological pressures that reflect a person’s unique experiences, cultural definitions of what is and is not “nor- mal,” religious ideas that link sex with moral responsibility, biological drives, and so on. These forces can have a significant impact on how individuals perceive their own sexuality as well as sex in general (see the “Culture & Diversity” box) Given these contextual considerations, it is easy to appreciate the difficulty in approaching the study of sexuality from a perspective supporting the use of scientific theory and methods that characterizes modern science (see Chapter 2). One of the earliest and longest-standing attempts of this kind is the challenge to clearly define “normal” versus “abnormal” types of sexual behaviour, an issue we still struggle with today (see Chapter 15). In Tables 3.1 and 3.2, useful statistical terms, such as average and correlation, are defined; note that average is not to be taken to mean “nor- mal,” given the inherent variability in many aspects of sexual behaviour. The scientific approach to sex research has been criticized for its oversimplification of sexuality to include only measur- able, observable, physical, and behavioural events. The opponents of this approach emphasize the importance of personal experience within the context of sex, since this experience is based on the personal values, religious mores, and cultural influences that give sex its emotional meanings. This view is exemplified by controversy about whether variations in women’s sexual function are “dysfunctional.” Scholars argue that contemporary “medicalized” models of women’s sexuality, which are guided by strict definitions of “normal” sexual function, base expectations of the female  3| Sex Research Methods 49 Culture & Diy Using Research to Explore Sexuality in Asian-Canadians Given the strong role that culture plays in the expression guilt, and poorer sexual function (e.g. lower desire, arousal, of sexuality, surprisingly little research has been done to pleasure) thandid their European-Canadian peers. They also investigate how first- and second-generation immigrants’ determined that more highly acculturated Asian-Canadian sexual beliefs are influenced by the sexual mores of both women reported less sexual guilt and that lower levels of their traditional cultures and the culture of their new home. sexual guilt in turn had a positive impact on sexual de- Lori Brotto, an academic clinical psychologist at the Univer- sire (Woo, Brotto, & Gorzalka, 201). Interestingly, despite sity of British Columbia, has delved into how this cross-cul- the previous reports of poorer sexual function in Asian- tural interaction influences sexual attitudes, knowledge Canadian women, vaginal blood flow patterns in these of sexuality and sexual health, and sexual function. Based women were comparable to those found in European- on previous observations of heightened sexual conser- Canadian women (Yule, Woo, & Brotto, 2010). Researchers vatism in Asian-Canadians, Brotto and her team queried often observe vaginal blood flow patterns as a physiolog- Asian- and European-Canadian men and women in univer- ical indicator of sexual arousal; thus, these findings sug- sities and in the Vancouver community about their sexual gest that the psychological attitudes about sexuality do lives and the extent to which they had adjusted to the not necessarily inhibit a woman's ability to achieve sexual Western values held by Canadians—in other words, the ex- arousal. This research raises awareness about the complex tent to which they had acculturated. The researchers dis- interaction of culture, sexual beliefs, and sexual functioning covered that Asian-Canadian women reported less sexual in influencing how women experience their sexuality, which knowledge, more conservative sexual attitudes, more sexual has yet to be explored in other ethnic minorities in Canada. sexual response on patterns observed in the male sexual response, despite the many interpersonal, cultural, and political factors that influence men’s experiences of sexuality in a manner different from the way they influence women’s experiences (Moynihan, 2003; Tiefer, 2001). Indeed, even the language that has historically been used in sex research has been criticized because much of it reflects a heteronormative perspective. Heteronormativity asserts that heterosexuality is the only heteronormativity acceptable sexual orientation and that sexual activity occurs between men and women. In addi- The belief that humanity is divided tion, it implies that biological sex, gender identity, sexual behaviour, and gender roles are aligned into distinct and in “expected” ways (see Chapters 10 and 11). In practice, studies that compare heterosexual to complementary sexually and gender-diverse (SGD; see Chapter 1) groups often use the heterosexual group as the genders/sexes (man/ “ideal” comparison group, thereby introducing discrimination into the research. Furthermore, male and woman/ female). given the various difficulties with recruitment for nonsurvey research, such as interview- and laboratory-based studies, many researchers have relied on samples that often consist of largely cisgender, heterosexual, Caucasian, young, able-bodied university students. Although this prac- tice is slowly changing, relatively little laboratory research—and thus research on the cognitive, behavioural, and psychophysiological processes involved in sexual response—focuses on aging samples and SGD and other marginalized populations. This chapter highlights many of the advantages of taking a scientific, hypothesis-driven ap- proach to research. At the same time, it also acknowledges the limitations of this approach and explores alternative ways of conducting sex research. You will read how early texts on sexuality served to describe particular acts that could enhance the sexual lives of its readers and their part- ners, and you will find detailed descriptions of the various methods that researchers use today. The concepts and methods covered in this chapter will provide you with a foundation of knowledge that you can use to critically assess the validity and quality of sex research that you encounter in later chapters. 50 Human Sexuality TABLE 3.1 Statistical concepts relevant to sex research Term Definition How it is calculated Exampl Average A number that Add up all the numbers to 10 people respond (also referred measures the central get the total. Then divide to a question on how to as the tendency of a given the total by how many many times they have “mean”) set of scores. values went into the total. masturbated in the past week. All 10 people respond. Their data are as follows: O, 1,1,2,2,2,4,5,8,10. Total = 35 35/10=3.5 The average is 3.5 times per week. Note: the average does not mean that masturbating 3.5 times a week is “normal.” Median A simple measure Arrange the numbers There are 10 data points in of central tendency; in order from lowest to the example above. 10 is an simply put, it is the highest. Count them. If even number. The two middle middle of a list of odd, the median is the numbers are 2 and 2. When numbers. middle value. If even, the we add these up, the total is 4. median is the average of Then we divide 4 by 2 to get 2. the two middie values. The median is 2. Mode The most frequently Organize the data in order 0 appears once. occurring value. from lowest to highest. 1appears twice. Count how many times 2 appears three times. each data point appears. 4 appears once, as do 5, 8, The data point that is and 10. chosen most frequently 2 appears the most times is the mode. (three times). 2 is the mode. Range When used in Organize the data in order The lowest value is O, and descriptive statistics, from lowest to highest. the highest value is 10. the range represents Then pick the lowest and Therefore, the range is 0-10. the smallest and highest values. largest values in a data set. It provides information about the spread of the values. \ Historical Overview of Sex Research Methods Early Texts Early formal texts on sexuality served instructional, cultural, and religious purposes for those who had the education and means to access them. One of the best-known sexual manuals is the Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, written in Sanskrit around the second century, which consists of erotic  3| Sex Research Methods 51 TABLE 3.2 Additional statistical terms relevant to sex research Incidence The rate of new cases of the disease Based on the 2016 national incidence or condition of interest. It is generally estimates, the incidence rate for Hiv The frequency of reported within a period of time (e.g., a in Canada is 6.0 per 100,000 people occurrence of new year) and as a fraction of the population (caTIE, 2018). cases of an infection or a disease (or other who are at risk of developing the condition) in a defined condition (e.g. per 100,000 women over population projected to the age of 40). 100,000 population for a set time, usually Prevalence An estimate of the proportion of a The estimated prevalence of HIV one year. population who already have (or have cases in Canada was 63,110 at the had) a disease/condition in a given end of 2016. That is a prevalence rate prevalence time period. Sometimes the prevalence of 173 per 100,000 people living in The current extent of a pathogen, infection, is also reported as a fraction of the Canada (CATIE, 2018). or disease (or another population. condition) in a defined population at a given Correlation A statistical measure of the extent to For women in Canada living with time. which two or more variables are related. HIV, there is a significant positive Correlations can be positive, in which correlation between racial case the variables increase or decrease discrimination and increased in parallel. They can also be negative, likelihood of not being on such that when one or more variables combination antiretroviral treatment increase, one or more of the others (Kronfli et al., 2017). decrease. Note that correlations speak guide for links to more to relationships among variables in a information on HIV in noncausal manner; correlations do not Canada imply that one variable causes the other. instruction related to courtship, sexual intercourse, a man’s interactions with his wife and other women, and tips on improving sexual vitality (Daniélou, 1993). Early sex manuals, although often considered historical curiosities, in fact preserve detailed descriptions of how sexuality was viewed in past times. For example, a sixteenth-century Arabic text by Sheikh Nefzaoui, The Perfumed Garden for the Soul’s Recreation, provides the following description of one of many ways to engage in sexual intercourse, called dok el arz (the pounding on the spot): The man sits down with his legs stretched out; the woman then places herself astride on his thighs, crossing her legs behind the back of the man, and places her vulva opposite his member [penis], which latter she guides into her vagina; she then places her arms around his neck, and he embraces her sides and waist, and helps her to rise and descend upon his verge [penis]. She must assist in his work. (Burton, 1964, p. 77) In Western nations, texts that discussed sexuality were often censored (see Chapter 1), al- Visit the student study guide for links to an though texts encouraging individuals to suppress their sexual desires were generally allowed to interesting look at circulate. In the Victorian era, for example, there were abundant marriage and love manuals historical sexual objects that promoted the suppression of sexual desire and behaviour, except for the purpose of procre- from the Kinsey Institute { archives ation. Examples of such titles that appeared in the United States at this time include John Harvey  52 Human Sexuality pathologize Kellogg’s Plain Facts for Old and Young (1877) and Henry Guernsey’s Plain Talks on Avoided Sub- The act of identifying a jects (1882). condition as indicative of disease. Modern Texts sadism The practice of Texts on sexuality continued to serve primarily instructive purposes until the late nineteenth cen- deriving pleasure or tury. Richard von Krafft-Ebings Psychopathia Sexualis (1886/1965) is often credited as the first text sexual gratification from inflicting pain, to approach sexuality from a modern scientific perspective. Yet this work was heavily influenced by humiliation, or suffering the social values of the time, and it pathologized a number of sexual expressions that were consid- on other people. ered “abnormal,” including same-gender/sex attraction, sexual fetishes, sadism, and masochism masochism (see Chapter 15). The practice of deriving In contrast, Iwan Bloch’s The Sexual Life of Our Time in Its Relations to Modern Civilization pleasure or sexual (1906) took a more objective look at sexuality. Often referred to as “the father of sexology,” Bloch gratification from the aimed to describe natural variations in sexual phenomena, like masturbation and same-gender/sex experience of suffering physical pain or sexual attraction, by describing their occurrence across cultures and in healthy, “normal” individ- humiliation uals. Whereas Krafft-Ebing’s work seemed to argue for a clear separation between “normal” and “pathological” sexuality, Bloch’s work suggested that all aspects of sexuality lie along a continuum. sexology The early twentieth century also saw a rise in the publication of sex manuals written by women. The scientific study of human sexuality. Many of these texts—such as Margaret Sanger’s What Every Mother Should Know (1911)—were designed to educate women about sexuality and to promote the use of birth control within the interviews context of marriage (Melody & Peterson, 1999). Some of the manuals of this time, such as Marie Self-report research Stopes’s Married Love (1918), also contain early feminist critiques of the repressive Victorian mod- tools designed to collect data about els of sexuality. an individual’s experiences and/or perceptions. Kinsey’s Interview-Based Approach The beginning of analytical, large-scale sex re- search began with Alfred Kinsey (Figure 3.1). Courtesy of The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Kinsey began his formal study of human sexual behaviour in 1939 by interviewing 62 college stu- dents (women and men); within a year, he had re- cruited 733 participants. The questions Kinsey used in these interviews addressed a wide variety of top- ics, including marriage, sexual health education, physical history, nocturnal sex dreams, masturba- liam Dellenback tion, heterosexual/mixed-gender/sex experiences, same-gender/sex sexual activity, and sexual contact with animals. Kinsey’s plan was to collect data from many participants who spanned the continuum of Reproduction every possible sexual interest and to develop a clas- sification system based on these data. The detailed categories and subgroupings he identified allowed FIGURE 3.1 Alfred Kinsey’s studies of human sexuality were based him to compare sexual behaviour between differ- on thousands of personal interviews in which he gathered infor- ent groups based on gender/sex, age, religious af- mation about the sexual beliefs and behaviours of individuals filiation, marital status, social class, and education. from a variety of age groups—from teen to elderly—and back- Over the course of 18 years, he and his colleagues grounds, including prison inmates and sex workers. Originally ~Wardell Pomeroy, Paul Gebhard, and Clyde Martin trained as a zoologist, Kinsey applied the attention to subtle vari- conducted 17,500 interviews (Brecher, 1969). ations in detail that he learned in his early studies of gall wasps to Kinsey’s work gained wide recognition in his descriptions of variations in sexuality. academic and non-academic circles with the  3| Sex Research Methods 53 publication of Sexual Behaviour in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behaviour in the Human Female (1953), which were based on interviews with more than 10,000 men and women, A mong other achievements, these works challenged the Victorian ideas that women were uninterested in sex. They also normalized same-gender/sex sexual attraction and bisexual fantasies and be. haviour, thus contributing to later social movements that supported the recognition and accep- tance of same-gender/sex sexual attraction. Perhaps most surprising was Kinsey’s success in obtaining detailed and intimate information about interviewees’ experiences that did not con- form to what was generally perceived to be “normal” sexual behaviour—for example, sexual in- teractions with animals. Kinsey and his colleagues attributed their success to their interviewing techniques, which normalized a wide variety of sexual behaviours by framing questions with the assumption that every individual had engaged in the entire spectrum of sexual behaviours. The researchers also avoided using slang in their interviews, since such informal language could cast a negative light on sexual activities. Despite its general success, Kinsey’s work has been criticized by some. Major criticisms have focused on Kinsey's oversampling of white men and women (and thus under-representing minority ethnic groups); his use of nonrandom samples; possible inaccuracies in the reported nonrandom samples prevalence of various behaviours and disorders, especially given that some of his data on this Study participants topic conflicted with that from other sources; and the emphasis on a person’s sexual behaviour who have not been selected at random rather than on how the person experiences their own sexuality. Nevertheless, Kinsey’s contri- and therefore do not bution to the scientific study of sexuality has made an undeniable impact on the field of sex accurately represent research and society. the population of interest in terms of gender/sex, ethnic, Masters and Johnson's Observational Approach socioeconomic, behavioural, and/or The first systematic, large-scale study of physiological sexual responses in humans was conducted other characteristics. by William Masters and Virginia Johnson (Figure 3.2) in the late 1950s. Inspired by Alfred Kinsey’s empirical work, Masters and Johnson sought to understand human sexuality through direct observation of Methods that rely on individuals’ sexual responses. To achieve this goal, they used various electronic instruments and direct observation filming of procedures (see the “Research vs Real Life” box). and experiments, rather than on theory Although Masters and Johnson are often credited with being the first to use observational tech- alone, to confirm a niques to study physiological sexual responses in humans, a number of researchers had much earlier phenomenon used similar methods to monitor such responses. For example, French researcher Félix Roubaud, who published a detailed de- scription of genital responses to sexual intercourse in 1855, had observed the mechanical interaction between a vagina and a penis, changes in blood flow resulting from sexual excitement, and even behavioural changes before and during orgasm. An- other example comes from the work of American doctor Joseph R. Beck, who in 1874 described his direct observations of cer- vical contractions and blood flow changes during orgasm in a patient. In addition, cardiovascular activity during sexual in £ tercourse and orgasm was documented by American research- ers Ernst P. Boas and Ernst Goldschmidt in 1932. Furthermore, ¢ § American gynecologist Robert L. Dickinson (1861-1950) was 3E the first to use the technique of inserting an illuminated glass tube into the vagina to observe changes of the vagina and FIGURE 3.2 William Masters and Virginia Johnson cervix, a technique also used by Masters and Johnson. conducted many groundbreaking studies into the na- In contrast to their predecessors, Masters and Johnson’s ture of sexual response and the diagnosis and treat- empirical approach was innovative because it enabled the ~ment of sexual disorders and dysfunctions from 1957 to researchers to measure sexual responses. In addition, their the 1990s. Current understandings of “normal” sexual observations of 694 men and women during masturbation function are often still based on these early studies. 54 Human Sexuality Research vs Real Life Observing Sexual Response as It Happens in the Lab accustomed to performing on demand and would not feel Contributed by Karen L. Blair and Katherine uncomfortable engaging in sexual activity within a labo- Sutton ratory environment. Through the process of interviewing As one might imagine, many areas of sex research can be 188 women sws and 27 men sws, Masters determined that extremely personal, delving into some of the most pri- there would likely be problems in using these individuals vate details of human experience. To further compound because they tended to have transient lifestyles, which this issue, many aspects of human sexual behaviour do would make them difficult to follow over time, and health not lend themselves to survey research. One such area is issues that affected their sexual responses. Masters was the physiology of sexual arousal and response. Most indi- somewhat stumped as to how to find other participants viduals are unaware of the inner workings of their organs and began discussing his research with colleagues. Much during sexual activity, and even if they were aware, very to his surprise, he found that many were willing to partic- few would be interested in stopping part-way through ipate in his research themselves. Eventually, Masters and to answer a survey about their experiences! This makes Johnson were able to recruit almost 700 participants studying the actual physiological processes that occur (312 men and 382 women) who were willing to have their during sexual activity difficult. These challenges have not, physiological responses recorded while they either mas- however, prevented researchers from attempting to study turbated or engaged in partnered intercourse within the sex “up close and personal laboratory setting (Masters & Johnson, 1966). It has been William Masters and Virginia Johnson were pioneer re- conservatively estimated that they collected data on searchers in this field and have provided the basis of most of more than 10,000 orgasms. what we now know about sexual Despite the weaith of information collected, Masters sexual response physiology and the sexual re- and Johnson originally had difficulty disseminating their cycle sponse cycle (see Chapter 4). In research findings. Between 1959 and 1965, many of the top. The four-stage model the early 1950s, Masters was a medical journals refused to publish their results, and many of physiological responses during researcher in the Department of doctors and scientists with whom they shared their find- sexual stimulation Obstetrics and Gynaecology at ings disapproved of the study and accused the research proposed/discovered Washington University in St team of immorality and voyeurism. (It should be noted by Masters and Louis, Missouri, and he wanted that this research was being conducted at a time when Johnson's research. The phases are to begin a study investigating even talking about sex openly was frowned upon; thus, the excitement, plateau, the physiological responses of thought of studying sex occurring in a public place such orgasm, and resolution. individuals engaged in sexual as a research lab was very off-putting to many individu- activity. In the process of getting als.) Even more controversial was the “coition [intercourse] his study up and running, he machine” that the team invented, which consisted of a : Visit the student study guide for links placed an advertisement for a clear artificial penis that was equipped with a camera in 0 Dr Kristen Mark's research assistant and came order to provide visual images of the interior of the vagina sychology Today article © across Virginia Johnson, who during penetration. bout the history of the would become his research The results of Masters and Johnson's research have exual response cycle partner and later his wife. To- been used extensively in the treatment of sexual dys- gether, Masters and Johnson function, infertility, and contraceptive failure. Researchers were the first to systematically observe, monitor, and film in- today still make frequent reference to the sexual response dividuals having sex or masturbating for the purposes of ex- cycle as detailed by Masters and Johnson (Chapter 4), and amining their physiological responses. But how did they find their methods served to bring the study of sexual activity people who were willing to participate in their research? into the laboratory. Contemporary sex researchers have Originally, Masters had determined that he could use found a number of other ways to study various aspects sex workers (sws; see Chapter 18) as his research partici- of sexual physiology (as outlined in this chapter), but it pants, based on the assumption that such individuals were can often remain difficult to receive ethical approval from  3| Sex Research Methods 55 university research ethics boards for research that in- Katherine Sutton, PhD, graduated from Queen’s University volves physically invasive investigation into sexual activity. in 2013. She is the Chief Psychologist for Acute Psychiatric Inpatient Services and Custody Behavioural Health in Santa Karen L. Blair is an assistant professor at St Francis Xavier Clara County, California. She also has a private practice University in the Department of Psychology. Dr Blair's work where she specializes in working with individuals and cou- focuses on relationships, health, sexual prejudice, and sGp ples. Her client base includes sexual offenders and people psychology. with paraphilias, paraphilic disorders, and gender dysphoria. e e e — and sexual intercourse allowed them to speculate about patterns of sexual excitement, plateau, orgasm, and post-orgasmic resolution (see Chapter 4). They published their views on “normal” sexual behaviour in Human Sexual Response (1966), and they attempted to characterize abnor- mal sexual function as a departure from these standards in Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970). Although their work was instrumental in characterizing sexual physiology and in developing the first sex therapy program, it was also criticized for oversampling white individuals, focusing on orgasm as the goal and outcome of “normal” sex, pathologizing same-gender/sex sexual be- haviour, and overemphasizing the physiological aspects of intercourse. Qualitative vs Quantitative Approaches to Research Recall from the introduction to this chapter, and from Chapter 1, that a person’s sexual experiences are influenced by a wide variety of social, psychological, cultural, and even political factors. These psychosocial factors interact with biological systems and physical processes related to sexuality. Thus, contemporary researchers who seek a complete understanding of sex and sexuality must devise methods that can account for a broad array of factors. To meet this goal, researchers gener- ally use a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. The value of using qualitative i Visit the student research methods is that they can account for subjective aspects of sexuality that are difficult to study guide for links a basic introduction to measure—for example, a person’s attitudes, beliefs, and emotions about sexuality. This type of ap- psychological research proach focuses on the participant as the expert and usually does not impose researcher beliefs or i methods by Dr. Paul expectations onto the data collection. As such, qualitative research methods are suitable for dis- Merritt (Georgetown covery and exploration of new topics related to sexuality. The value of using quantitative research University) methods, on the other hand, is that they allow the researcher to objectively identify and measure behaviour and physical processes (erection, vaginal lubrication, etc.) that occur during sexual ac- qualitative research tivity. Quantitative methods can also be very useful in identifying the cause-and-effect relation- methods Research methods ships between sexual variables and in classifying certain types of sexual behaviour. that explore variation The importance of considering both qualitative and quantitative sexual information is evident in the individual, in Alfred Kinsey’s systematic evaluation of different types of sexual behaviours based on partici- interpersonal, and/or pant interviews. His initial interviews were designed to qualitatively evaluate participants’ entire group understanding of phenomena by using range of sexual behaviours without making judgments about whether individuals should or should flexible, open-ended not engage in the behaviours; he then used the self-report information he had collected to create questions. measurable categories of sexual behaviours that could be studied quantitatively with statistics. For quantitative research example, he found that many individuals who reported that they were heterosexual also expe- methods rienced erotic thoughts about or engaged in sexual behaviours with members of their own sex, Research methods that whereas other individuals who reported that they were same-gender/sex oriented also acknowl- measure and organize edged having sexual thoughts about or experiences with members of the other gender/sex. By using naturally occurring variation, often with qualitative as well as quantitative methods, Kinsey was able to classify his participants along a the aim of identifying seven-point scale of sexual orientation (Figure 3.3). causal relationships. 56 Human Sexuality e TEERR | Incidental hetero- More than | sexual ) 1un incidental | Pehaviour AL e4 l FIGURE 3.3 Kinsey's scale of sexual orientation attempts to describe a person’s sexual identity at a given time. A score of O indicates that a person is exclusively heterosexual (different-gender/sex oriented; see Chapter 11), and a score of 6 indicates that a person is exclusively same-gender/sex oriented. Kinsey assigned an additional grade, listed as “X," to those who were asexual (see Chapter 11). Despite his reliance on interviews in much of his work, Kinsey has been accused of downplay- ing important qualitative aspects of sexuality by preferring to focus on easily measurable sexual be- haviours. Thus, his work also contains examples of the limitations sex researchers face when they neglect qualitative approaches. In his studies of orgasm, for example, Kinsey carefully recorded the occurrence of orgasms, but he did not investigate how the characteristics of orgasms—including the quality of orgasm-related sensations, orgasm intensity, or the subjective experience of orgasms— differed between individuals (Robinson, 1976). As a result, his research did not fully explore all aspects of orgasms. In fact, it was not until 2002 that the characteristics of orgasms were carefully studied, when Kenneth Mah and Irv Binik of McGill University used hundreds of qualitative descriptions from young men and women to develop a two-dimensional model of orgasm (Mah & Binik, 2002). Although some researchers have viewed qualitative approaches as unnecessary to the research process—perhaps because they consider such approaches unempirical or not applicable to general populations—most sex researchers today recognize that qualitative approaches have an import- ant place in sex research. Qualitative approaches can be particularly useful at the beginning of a research project because they can help researchers to understand the aspects of sexuality that cannot be captured by general summaries of information—for example, meaning, morality, social norms, religion, ethnicity, socioeconomic influences, sexual orientation, and context. Qualitative approaches also provide a richer, deeper account of the individual human sexual experience that cannot be measured by numbers on a scale. For example, although multiple quantitative studies of men’s sexual functioning across the adult lifespan exist, relatively few have examined men’s feelings and experiences of sexual desire. Using semi-structured interviews, researchers at the Uni- versity of Guelph in Ontario found important themes related to men’s sexual desire in long-term relationships, including the importance of emotional connections, feeling desired, and the ability to communicate intimately with their partner, which may not have been captured using closed- ended questionnaires (Murray, Milhausen, Graham, & Kuczynski, 2017). Sex Research Methods and Designs Researchers use a variety of methods to study human sexuality, each of which has its own strengths and weaknesses (Table 3.3). A researcher’s choice of method(s) depends on the type of question research design they want to answer, which is the basis for the research design. For example, if the goal of the Aresearcher's plan for how they will collect research is to describe certain patterns of sexual behaviour, the researcher might choose to design and analyze data. a study that involves direct observation, case studies, and/or interviews. If the goal is to study the  3| Sex Research Methods 57 TABLE 3.3 Strengths and weaknesses of commonly used sex research methods and designs ign/Method Descript trengtl Weaknesses Descriptive Summarizing patterns in attitudes Enables researchers to Results are not usually design toward sex and sexual behaviours; uncover detailed descriptions. generalizable; cannot be used to generally used in qualitative that reflect the richness of prove causation or relationships research but can also be used in individuals’ lived experiences among variables quantitative research Direct Monitoring and recording patterns Descriptive; increased Does not allow the researcher observation in sexual and/or relational ecological validity and to manipulate or influence behaviour; generally used in accuracy; can provide much behaviours of interest qualitative research contextual information Interview Collecting detailed self-report data Descriptive; provides a detailed Susceptible to memory bias about an individual's experience account of sexuality; organized and responder bias; difficult and/or perceptions of sexuality; around a semi-structured to organize all the information generally used in qualitative framework obtained research Case study Examining a single individual, event, or Descriptive; provides a detailed Susceptible to interpretation group of interest in great detail over longitudinal account, which can bias; difficult to generalize a period of several months or years; suggest causal relationships findings in one individual or group generally used in qualitative research to the rest of the population Content analysis Identifying themes of meaning in a Descriptive; retains meaning Difficult to quantify without text or set of observations; generally and richness of data reducing information from data used in qualitative research Correlational Examining two or more variables Enables an evaluation of the Cannot infer causation; may design that change in relation to one relationship between two be confounded by related but another; generally used in complex variables distinct constructs quantitative research Survey Collecting information through Allows for the collection of Susceptible to participants’ standardized or unstandardized large amounts of information; memory bias, responder bias, questionnaires about sexual beliefs, relatively inexpensive to and influences from demand attitudes, and behaviour; generally conduct; useful in correlational characteristics; questionnaires used in quantitative research and statistical analyses; may oversimplify sexual participants can remain constructs anonymous Archival Sorting through pre-existing Convenient; can reveal much Prone to inaccuracies when data-mining data or records; generally used in about past conditions in records are incomplete; variables quantitative research general, or a patient's specific in past records may not be ideal medical history measures of current interests Experiments Using standardized procedures to Can make strong inferences Can be ethically implausible to evaluate the causal relationship about cause and effect; offers use in research involving human between two variables using control over experimental participants randomization; generally used in variables quantitative research Quasi- Using standardized procedures to Convenient; can evaluate Cannot be used to make strong experiments evaluate correlation between two clinically important patient statements about cause and variables; does not use random groups; offers some degree effect; unknown influence of assignment; generally used in of control over experimental confounding variables quantitative research parameters 58 Human Sexuality surveys or to sort correlation between two or more variables, the researcher might choose to use a cause-and- through pre-existing records to collect data. Alternatively, if the goal is to confirm experiment. effect relationship, the researcher will likely decide to design a carefully controlled designs— descript ive, correlati onal, and The following discussion explores each of these research experimental—as well as the methods most commonly used in each type of research. descriptive research designs Descriptive Designs Research designs that of sexual allow researchers to Descriptive research designs are useful when researchers wish to summarize patterns summarize patterns attitudes and behaviour and/or generate ideas for future research by documenting aspects of sex- of sexual phenomena through observation uality through observation and participants’ self-report. Researchers can use descriptive methods and self-report. in both qualitative and quantitative approaches, with qualitative descriptive methods relying on open-ended questions to draw detailed descriptions from small samples of individuals and quan- titative descriptive methods summarizing data from large samples. The descriptive methods out- direct observation Observing and recording patterns in lined here are found in qualitative and quantitative research designs. behaviour, either in a natural setting or in a Direct Observation The most basic and non-intrusive descriptive method is direct observation, which involves moni- laboratory. ecological validity toring and recording sexual or relational behaviour. This method is most often used in qualitative The extent to which approaches because it can account for a wide variety of contextual factors. Alternatively, it is also used the behaviours that in quantitative approaches to measure the frequency at which certain behavioural variables occur. are observed ina research setting are Masters and Johnson'’s studies of sexual response were initially based on observational methods, representative of what since these methods allowed them to understand the basic principles of physiological sexual arousal actually happens in the and orgasm. When conducting observational studies, researchers generally try to avoid interfering real world. with the phenomena they are observing in order to preserve the ecological validity of their findings. memory bias Observational studies can capture readily observable events either in a laboratory setting A bias that results from that is designed to interfere as little as possible with what is being studied or in a naturalistic, cognitive processes public environment (Figure 3.4). In some cases, a researcher or a trained observer may monitor that interfere with the way in which a person events as they occur—either in person or via a real-time digital transmission (e.g., a webcast). In remembers an event. other cases, the researcher may set up audio, video, or digital recording devices to capture the events for review at a later time; this approach has the benefit of reducing the observer’s memory interpretation bias bias. Because human behaviours are not always predictable, observation studies must be carefully A bias that results from the fact that different planned so that the period of observation coincides with times at which the behaviour(s) of inter- people interpret est will most likely occur. behaviours and The advantages of direct observation are evident from John Gottman’s work on couple situations in different communication in the prediction of divorce. Using video recordings, Gottman monitored con- ways based on their personal experiences, versations between mixed-gender/sex and same-gender/sex couples at his laboratory. He found opinions, beliefs, and that participants’ expressions of positive or negative emotion during a 15-minute couple con- soon. versation about relationship conflict could predict relationship outcome years later (Carrere & operationalize Gottman, 1999). To clearly define Of course, direct observation also has clear limitations for sex research, given that most sexual a concept so that activity occurs in private settings. An additional limitation is the fact that participants may not different people will understand it in the behave naturally if they are aware that they are being observed. Furthermore, the observer must same way. carefully guard against their own interpretation bias; to minimize this bias, researchers must carefully operationalize all behaviours and ideally have more than one researcher interpreting the inter-rater reliability data to get a measure of inter-rater reliability of the interpretations. The degree to which different researchers, or raters, agree Interview consistently on the Interviews can provide detailed self-report data about individuals’ experiences of sexuality, sexual occurrence of a behaviour or a theme in histories, and attitudes that shape expectations about sex and relationships. When interpreting an the data. interview, an interviewer may consider observations and visual cues, including the individual’s level  3| Sex Research Methods 59 of comfort in discussing their sexual history, current mood, and reactions that suggest additional open-ended questioning is needed. A major benefit of using interviews is that they gen- erate a great amount of data; indeed, as you have seen, Alfred Kinsey’s intricate characterization of sexual behaviour was largely based on data he collected through interviews. Interviews also have a place in clinical settings, where re- searchers and clinicians can administer structured interviews to help formulate a subclinical or psychiatric diagnosis that plays a prominent role in the participant’s experience of sex- uality. The screening procedures for sexual psychophysiology research (see below), for example, commonly include a clinical interview to determine the presence of sexual dysfunction; the questions in such an interview are generally based on criteria FIGURE 3.4 Observational studies conducted in public outlined in the most recent edition of the Diagnostic and Sta- settings can allow researchers to observe how people tistical Manual of Mental Disorders (see Chapters 15 and 16). interact with one another in a natural setting, such as a The main weakness of the interview technique is that, as city park, yet they do not allow researchers to have any with all self-report techniques of data collection, it is suscepti- control over when they might observe the behaviour(s) ble to memory bias—on the part of the researcher as well as on they are interested in studying. the part of the participant—as well as responder bias (Paulhus, 2002). Often, responder bias creeps in when participants feel that they need to respond to sexual ques- tions in a manner they deem to be socially acceptable (Meston, Heiman, Trapnell, & Paulhus, 1998). For responder bias example, in a study of convicted sexual offenders, higher scores on social desirability measures were The tendency for a significantly related to lower reports of sexual fantasies that would be considered inappropriate or un- participant to answer conventional (Seifert, Boulas, Huss, & Scalora, 2017). This responder bias can also be seen clearly in the questions in a way they believe the researcher general population when reporting number of sexual partners. Men consistently report higher num- expects bers of sexual partners than do women; recent research on a nationally representative sample in Britain demonstrated that this difference can largely be attributed to men more likely using extreme estimates, case study women attempting to count rather than estimate their number of partners, as well as societal gender/ An in-depth study of an individual or a group. sex differences in attitudes toward casual sex that favour higher numbers for men (Mitchell et al., 2019). longitudinal studies Case Study Studies that examine A case study is an in-depth, descriptive, longitudinal examination of a single individual, event, or psychological and/or behavioural information group of interest using interviews, observations, questionnaires, and/or information from experi- in a single individual or ments (see below). In sex research, a case study typically refers to the analysis of an individual within group over a period of a sexual context, with the researcher collecting detailed information about the individual’s sexual time (usually months to years) development and history, recent or current sexual experiences, sexual relationships, sexual function, and previous treatments. A case study may illustrate a common sexual experience, or it may offer theoretical bias insight into a poorly understood aspect of sexuality that would be unethical to study with experi- A bias that can result ments (see the “Ethical Debate” box for considerations of safety for participants and those running from an individual’s strict adherence to a research studies). In either case, such studies can uncover a vast amount of qualitative and quantita- specific theoretical tive information. approach. A drawback to the case study approach is that the analysis of case study data is susceptible generalizability to interpretation bias. The case study of Anna O., presented in Josef Breuer and Sigmund Freud’s The extent to which Studies on Hysteria (1895/2005), is a classic example of how a certain type of interpretation the conclusions bias—theoretical bias—can limit the objective interpretation of an individual’s behaviour. In the drawn from particular case of Anna O, the researchers inferred a causal relationship between childhood sexual abuse and findings in a sample population can be hysteria because they were—consciously or subconsciously—looking for a connection to support extended to principles their theoretical approach. Other factors that limit the usefulness of case studies are their poor that are present in the generalizability and their lack of a control-group or experimental design, which prevents the re- population at large. searcher from being able to draw any conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships. 60 Human Sexuality Sex Researcher Safety In an era following the “#MeToo” (see Chapter 17) and handled appropriately by the research team. This is why “Timesup” movements, research on sexual coercion, un- all participants must read, understand, and voluntarily wanted sexual experiences, and sexual harassment are of agree to the consent form prior to starting a study. continued importance. These topics, however, can present Research assistant and student volunteer safety is concern, and the research supervisor many challenges for researchers, one of which is personal also an important safety. In particular, examining factors that might impact responsible for the studies (i.e., the principal investigator) an individual’s decision to behave in a coercive manner or must demonstrate appropriate training and experience focusing research on a population that has a history of co- before any study will receive ethics approval. Ultimately, ercive or aggressive sexual behaviour toward others can the research supervisor has a responsibility to uphold the increase the researcher’s risk for violations of their own safety of their research team and their participants. In the safety. These violations can occur with threatening or in- case of Julia, this would involve in-depth training on how to appropriate emails or phone calls in response to research run the experiment and appropriate communication skills ads or threats to physical safety with in-person interviews and research etiquette to emphasize the educational and or laboratory studies. professional nature of the study. The research supervisor Consider the following scenario: Julia, a PhD student, should develop a laboratory protocol with clear instruc— is conducting a laboratory study on the impact of sexual tions on what is considered appropriate versus inappro- arousal on sexually coercive behaviours that has been ap- priate behaviour on the part of the researcher and the proved by her university ethics committee. Her research participants so that research assistants have clear expec- design involves participants watching sexually explicit or tations and support. Furthermore, the testing should take neutral videos and then evaluating fictional scenarios in place during daytime hours, and research assistants work which the characters do not provide clear consensual cues in groups of two or more to support each other. Many re- for sexual activity. Because the research experiment re- search laboratories will have direct access to campus se- quires Julia to interact with participants in person and after curity should a situation arise where researchers fear for they have watched sexually arousing videos, what are some their own safety. Above all, research assistants should al- steps she could take to minimize risk to her own safety? ways feel that they can refuse to test participants who act First, no study can be conducted without undergo- in ways that make them feel uncomfortable for their own ing a rigorous ethical review by the organization’s ethics safety. Although no study is completely risk-free, hav- review board (usually a university or hospital committee, ing a research supervisor who actively follows the test- depending on the location of the research). An ethics ing schedule, is available, and provides support through committee focuses on protecting the rights and safety of regular meetings and follow-ups with their trainees helps those who participate in research, and the review makes those who are running the studies feel supported and sure that any risk to participant well-being is minimal and protected as they explore more controversial topics. B Content Analysi content analysis Content analysis, a common component of descriptive studies, allows researchers to systemati- A method of data cally sort through the information they collect from their research in the form of observational analysis by which a notes, transcripts of interviews or focus group sessions, participants’ personal narratives, audio researcher identifies patterns or themes of recordings, and/or video recordings. Content analysis can be used qualitatively to uncover patterns meaning in a transcript or themes that naturally emerge from the research and to develop new ways of describing certain or across observations phenomena. It can also be used quantitatively to sort data into predetermined categories, although and often relates these much of the richness of the original descriptions can be lost in such an approach. patterns or themes to predetermined An example of qualitative content analysis comes from the work of Cindy Graham and col- theories. leagues, who wanted to identify factors that can increase or decrease the level of a woman’s sexual  3| Sex Research Methods 61 arousal. They began by holding focus groups, after which they used content analysis to draw mean- focus group ing from the sessions’ transcripts. Based on the transcripts, the researchers noted that the par- A small group of ticipants judged how sexually aroused they felt based on certain physical cues, including genital demographically “tingling, warmth, fullness, swelling, and lubrication.” The researchers also noted that the par- diverse individuals who ticipants described how certain thoughts or emotions could prevent them from feeling sexually participate in a guided discussion to help aroused. In the words of one woman, “It’s not as easy to feel aroused when I'm not feeling good aresearcher better about myselfand my body.” The researchers then used the information they had gathered from the understand a certain transcripts to develop new theoretical views of sexual arousal (Graham, Sanders, Milhausen belief, behaviour, or , & phenomenon. McBride, 2004; Bancroft, Graham, Janssen, & Sanders, 2009; Milhausen, Graham, Sanders, Yarber, & Maitland, 2010). Correlational Designs Correlational research designs allow researchers to study how multiple variables change in re- correlational lation to one another. The primary limitation of correlational designs is evident in the scientific research designs mantra correlation does not imply causation. Correlational research can uncover strong positive or Research designs that negative relationships between two or more variables, but it cannot indicate which variable causes allow researchers to study how two or more changes in the other or whether there is a third, unknown variable that causes both variables to varisbles co-vary, or vary in a seemingly related pattern. For instance, a negative correlation between genital sensitivity change, in relation to and number of past sexual partners may suggest that individuals who have had many sexual part- one another. ners have lower genital sensation than do individuals who have had few sexual partners. Yet this correlation can easily be explained by a third variable: age. Indeed, some loss of genital sensitivity is a natural consequence of aging (see Chapter 4), and older individuals, as compared to younger individuals, are also likely to report higher numbers of sexual partners because they have had more years of sexual opportunities. Given this difficulty in inferring clear causal relationships, correla- tional designs are often seen as exploratory efforts that generate ideas for experimental studies. Survey Researchers often use the survey method to collect data for correlational studies. This method survey method requires that participants complete standardized or unstandardized questionnaires about sexual A research method in beliefs, attitudes, and behaviour. Sexuality questionnaires are designed to tap into highly specific which participants are sexual constructs, such as sexual self-efficacy, sexual desire, or sexual guilt. When recruiting par- asked to respond to questionnaires. ticipants for a survey, researchers must be careful to avoid oversampling from any one group, since oversampling could bias the results. Thus, they try to select participants at random from a group standardized questionnaire that is large enough to include individuals with a wide variety of demographic characteristics to Aresearch tool improve the generalizability of the survey data. consisting of a fixed An example of a survey that produced highly generalizable results is the 2015 Sexual Explora- set of questions tion in America Study, which explored the frequency of different sexual behaviours in a nationally and corresponding response options, representative sample of adults in the United States (Herbenick et al., 2017). This study randomly sampled 975 men and 1046 women aged 18 to 91 years and focused on the kinds of sexual ac- unstandardized tivities that adults had engaged in during the previous month, the previous year, and over their questionnaire lifetime. The researchers found that while vaginal intercourse and oral sex were the most common Aresearch tool consisting of a fixed partnered sexual behaviours (88.5 per cent and 83 per cent, respectively), people also frequently set of questions, with engaged in many other types of sexual activity including receiving anal sex (23.8 per cent), having room for individualized sex in a public place (44.1 per cent), using a vibrator/dildo (41.9 per cent) (see Chapter 14), watching responses. sexually explicit videos (70.9 per cent), and sending (25.5 per cent) or receiving (33.7 per cent) nude or semi-nude photos (Herbenick et al., 2017). Information from this survey has helped to shape researchers’ understanding of how common different sexual behaviours are. The validity and reliability of survey data depend on how well the survey questions are worded. Ideally, questions should be stated in a clear, simple sentence, and consistent word- ing should be used throughout the questionnaire. Confusing terms must be explicitly defined 62 Human Sexuality (e.g., “Sexual intercourse includes any of the following activities: oral sex, penile-vaginal inter- a set of course, and penile-anal penetration.”). In addition, the questions should be followed by clearly worded multiple-choice responses rather than open-ended responses. Clear wording and ample definitions are particularly important when the concepts in question overlap, as is the case with such concepts as sexual desire and arousal, particularly in newer models of sexual response (Basson, 2000; see Chapter 4). Survey research offers a number of advantages. One is that it allows researchers to set up the study to allow participants to retain a sense of anonymity, which often helps participants feel free to give honest answers about even the most sensitive of sexual topics. Indeed, research has shown that women are more likely to report a higher prevalence of sexual arousal problems and genital pain when responding to self-report questionnaires than when responding to in-person interviews (Hayes, Bennett, Dennerstein, Taffe, & Fairley, 2008). Furthermore, surveys are the type of sex research that is least likely to suffer from volunteer selection bias, with most people being open to answering survey questions as compared to engaging in interviews or laboratory-based studies demand (Dawson et al., 2019). Another advantage is that surveys are very cost-effective to conduct, espe- characteristics cially when they are presented online. Finally, surveys can gather a large amount of data on a great Experimental cues number of topics very quickly. that indicate the type of behaviour or Yet there are drawbacks to this method. As with all self-report methods of data collection, the responding that the survey method is susceptible to participants’ memory bias as well as responder bias, although these researcher expects. biases can be mitigated to some degree if participants feel that they will remain anonymous. Sur- archival data-mining veys are also susceptible to participants’ responses being influenced by demand characteristics. Sorting through pre- existing data or records Archival Data-Mining to uncover new insights Archival data-mining offers a window into the past, and this method can be a rich source of cor- into past phenomena. relational information. Archival analysis can incorporate quantitative information (e.g., age of first experimental diagnosis, presence of positive cultures from genital exams, number of previous sexual partners) as research designs well as qualitative information (e.g., descriptions of interventions as “biomedical” or “behavioural” Research designs treatments), with the aim of uncovering trends in data across time, evaluating relationships between that use standardized procedures and sexual health and demographic variables, and assessing the possible outcomes of a given treatment. randomization to Researchers have retrospectively analyzed data from the 2003 and 2009-10 Canadian Com- evaluate the causal munity Health Survey to reveal longitudinal patterns in sexual behaviour and condom use of relationship between two variables. young Canadian adults (see Chapter 19). Their analysis revealed that the percentage of Canadians between the ages of 15 and 24 who had engaged in sexual intercourse at least once remained stable, confounding as did the percentages who reported becoming sexually active at an early age and having multiple variables sexual partners. Condom use increased between 2003 and 2009-10, especially in those reporting Psychological, behavioural, and/or that they had only one sexual partner (Rotermann, 2012). This analysis of existing data provided biological variables new information about longitudinal patterns in sexual behaviour of young Canadian adults. that change along ‘The major benefits of archival analysis include its cost-effectiveness and its lack of interfer- with the manipulated experimental variable, ence with how the data were collected. Yet it also has notable drawbacks, since records may be thereby affecting a incomplete or inconsistent, and these records can only reveal information about past occurrences researcher’s ability to of sexuality-related variables. discern a true cause- and-effect relationship between two variables. Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs random assignment Experimental research designs allow researchers to manipulate an experimental variable, care- The process of dividing research participants fully control for potential confounding variables, and use standardized procedures that expose into different treatment each participant to the same experimental conditions. Thus, they are capable of leading to strong or experimental evidence of cause-and-effect relationships. “True” experiments are defined by the use of random groups so that each assignment of participants to experimental and control groups and/or treatments, which allows participant has an equal chance of being a researcher to make claims about causality. Howeve