Chapter 1 Part 2: An Introduction to the Human Body PDF

CHAPTER 1 PART 2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY Dr. Jody Ralph NURS 1210 Learning Objectives- For Part 2 Define anatomy and physiology. Identify the locations and functions of each of the organ systems and major organs of the human body. Define the important life proc...

CHAPTER 1 PART 2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY Dr. Jody Ralph NURS 1210 Learning Objectives- For Part 2 Define anatomy and physiology. Identify the locations and functions of each of the organ systems and major organs of the human body. Define the important life processes of the human body. Explain the importance of homeostasis and describe the relationship of homeostatic imbalances to disorders. Describe the human body using the anatomical position and specific anatomical terminology. BASIC ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY Types of Anatomical Terminology Body positions Regional names Directional terms Planes and sections Body cavities Body Positions Anatomical position is a standardized method of observing or imaging the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical reference Person stands erect, facing the observer, the upper extremities are placed at the sides, the palms of the hands are turned forward, and the feet are flat on the floor Body Positions Supine: lying face-up Prone: lying facedown Regional Names Regional names are names given to specific regions of the body for reference Mario is standing in line to buy movie tickets. His arms are relaxed at his sides, and the palms of his hands are facing the sides of his legs. He is standing in the anatomical position. a) True b) False Louisa is lying on her back looking up at the ceiling. What is her body position? a) Prone b) Anatomical position c) Supine d) Lateral e) Medial Directional Terms Directional terms are used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another  Directional Terms Directional term Definition Example of Use Superior Toward the head, or the The heart is superior to the (soo'-PĒR-ē-or) upper part of a structure. liver. (cephalic or cranial) Inferior Away from the head, or The stomach is inferior to (in-FĒ-rē-or) (caudal) the lower part of a the lungs. structure. Anterior (an-TĒR-ē- Nearer to or at the front of The sternum (breastbone) or) (ventral)* the body. is anterior to the heart. Posterior Nearer to or at the back of The esophagus (food tube) (pos-TĒR-ē-or) the body. is posterior to the trachea (dorsal) (windpipe). *Note that the terms anterior and ventral mean the same thing in humans. However, in four-legged animals ventral refers to the belly side and is therefore inferior. Similarly, the terms posterior and dorsal mean the same thing in humans, but in four-legged animals dorsal refers to the back side and is therefore superior. Directional Terms Directional term Definition Example of Use Medial Nearer to the midline (an The ulna is medial to the (MĒ-dē-al) imaginary vertical line that radius. divides the body into equal right and left sides). Lateral Farther from the midline. The lungs are lateral to the (LAT-er-al) heart. Intermediate Between two structures. The transverse colon is (in'-ter-MĒ-dē-at) intermediate to the ascending and descending colons. Ipsilateral On the same side of the The gallbladder and (ip-si-LAT-er-al) body as another structure. ascending colon are ipsilateral. Contralateral On the opposite side of the The ascending and (KON-tra-lat-er-al) body from another descending colons are structure. contralateral. Directional Terms Directional Definition Example of Use term Proximal Nearer to the attachment of a The humerus (arm bone) is (PROK-si-mal) limb to the trunk; nearer to proximal to the radius. the origination of a structure. Distal Farther from the attachment The phalanges (finger bones) (DlS-tal) of a limb to the trunk; farther are distal to the carpals (wrist from the origination of a bones). structure. Superficial Toward or on the surface of The ribs are superficial to the (soo'-per-FISH- the body. lungs. al) (external) Deep Away from the surface of the The ribs are deep to the skin (Internal) body. of the chest and back. The stomach and descending colon are contralateral. a) True b) False Which pair of terms could be used to describe the location of the stomach when compared to the location of the left shoulder ? a) Medial and superior b) Lateral and proximal c) Medial and distal d) Medial and inferior e) Superior and distal What is the relationship between the knee and the foot? a) The knee is distal to the foot. b) The knee is proximal to the foot. c) The foot is superior to the knee. d) The knee is medial to the foot. e) The foot is lateral to the knee.  Planes & Sections Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body Note: Median is sometimes referred to as sagittal and coronal may be called frontal Planes & Sections What plane would you make if you divided a Thanksgiving turkey into equal right and left halves? a) Paramedian plane b) Coronal plane c) Transverse plane d) Median plane e) Oblique plane Body Cavities Body cavities are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs Body Cavities Cranial Cavity and vertebral canal  The cranial cavity is formed by the cranial bones and contains the brain.  The vertebral (spinal) canal is formed by the bones of the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord.  Three layers of protective tissue, called meninges, line these cavities. Body Cavities Body Cavities of the trunk  The trunk is subdivided by the diaphragm into an upper thoracic cavity and a lower abdominopelvic cavity.  The thoracic cavity contains two pleural cavities and the mediastinum, which includes the pericardial cavity. The pleural cavities enclose the lungs, while the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart. The mediastinum is a broad, median partition between the lungs that extends from the sternum to the vertebral column, it contains all contents of the thoracic cavity except the lungs. Body Cavities The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into a superior abdominal and an inferior pelvic cavity.  Viscera of the abdominal cavity include the stomach, spleen, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine.  Viscera of the pelvic cavity include the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine and internal female and male reproductive structures. The diaphragm separates which two body cavities? a) pelvic cavity from the abdominal cavity b) cranial cavity from the vertebral cavity c) thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity d) mediastinum from the thoracic cavity e) the pelvic cavity from the inguinal cavity The meninges would be found within which body cavity? a) Pelvic cavity b) Thoracic cavity c) Mediastinum d) Vertebral and cranial e) Abdominopelvic cavity Serous Membranes Serous membranes are thin, double-layered membranes that covers the viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities and also lines the walls of the thorax and abdomen Serous Membranes Parts of the serous membrane are the parietal layer which lines the walls of the cavities and the visceral layer which covers and adheres to the viscera within the cavities. Serous fluid between the two layers reduces friction and allows the viscera to slide somewhat during movements. Serous Membranes The serous membranes include the pleura, pericardium and peritoneum.  The pleural membrane surrounds the lungs, with the visceral pleura clinging to the surface of the lungs and the parietal pleura lining the chest wall.  The serous membrane of the pericardial cavity is the pericardium, with visceral pericardium covering the surface of the heart and the parietal pericardium lining the chest wall.  The peritoneum is the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity, with the visceral peritoneum covering the abdominal viscera and the parietal peritoneum lining the abdominal wall. Serous Membranes in the Thoracic Cavity The pericardium and pleura cover the heart and lungs, respectively Serous Membranes in the Thoracic Cavity Serous Membrane in the Abdominal Cavity The peritoneum, covers many of the abdominal organ  Retroperitoneal – the classification some organs are given because they are not surrounded by the peritoneum, rather, they are posterior to it The kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, duodenum of the small intestine, ascending and descending colons of the large intestine, and portions of the abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava are retroperitoneal Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants The abdominal cavity can be divided into regions to easily describe the location of organs The stomach is located primarily within which region? a) Pubic region b) Umbilical region c) Epigastric region d) Hypogastric region e) Left lumbar region Which abdominopelvic quadrant contains the appendix? a) Right lower b) Left lower c) Right upper d) Left upper e) None of these are the correct location of the appendix Aging and Homeostasis Aging is a normal process characterized by a progressive decline in the body’s ability to restore homeostasis Medical Imaging Medical imaging involves techniques that allow physicians to view images of the human body This allows physicians to diagnose anatomical and physiological abnormalities  Medical Imaging Procedures: Radiography Radiography Procedure: A single barrage of x-rays passes through the body, producing an image of interior structures on x-ray-sensitive film. The resulting two-dimensional image is a radiograph (RA-dē-ō-graf’), commonly called an x-ray. Comments: Relatively inexpensive, quick, and simple to perform; usually provides sufficient information for diagnosis. X-rays do not easily pass through dense structures, so bones appear white. Hollow structures, such as the lungs, appear black. Structures of intermediate density, such as skin, fat, and muscle, appear as varying shades of gray. At low doses, x-rays are useful for examining soft tissues such as the breast (mammography) and for determining bone density (bone densitometry or DEXA scan).  Medical Imaging Procedures: Radiography Radiography It is necessary to use a substance called a contrast medium to make hollow or fluid-filled structures visible (appear white) in radiographs. X-rays make structures that contain contrast media appear white. The medium may be introduced by injection, orally, or rectally, depending on the structure to be imaged. Contrast x-rays are used to image blood vessels (angiography), the urinary system (intravenous urography), and the gastrointestinal tract (barium contrast x-ray).  Medical Imaging Procedures: MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Procedure: The body is exposed to a high-energy magnetic field, which causes protons (small positive particles within atoms) in body fluids and tissues to arrange themselves in relation to the field. Then a pulse of radio waves "reads" these ion patterns, and a color-coded image is assembled on a video monitor. The result is a two- or three- dimensional blueprint of cellular chemistry. Comments: Relatively safe but cannot be used on patients with metal in their bodies. Shows fine details for soft tissues but not for bones. Most useful for differentiating between normal and abnormal tissues. Used to detect tumors and artery-clogging fatty plaques; reveal brain abnormalities; measure blood flow; and detect a variety of musculoskeletal, liver, and kidney disorders.  Medical Imaging Procedures: CT Computed Tomography (CT) (formerly called computerized axial tomography or CAT scan) Procedure: In this form of computer-assisted radiography, an x-ray beam traces an arc at multiple angles around a section of the body. The resulting transverse section of the body, called a CT scan, is shown on a video monitor. Comments: Visualizes soft tissues and organs with much more detail than conventional radiographs. Differing tissue densities show up as various shades of gray. Multiple scans can be assembled to build three−dimensional views of structures. Whole-body CT scanning typically targets the torso and appears to provide the most benefit in screening for lung cancers, coronary artery disease, and kidney cancers  Medical Imaging Procedures: Ultrasound Scanning Ultrasound Scanning Procedure: High‐frequency sound waves produced by a handheld wand reflect off body tissues and are detected by the same instrument. The image, which may be still or moving, is called a sonogram (SON-ō-gram) and is shown on a video monitor. Comments: Safe, noninvasive, painless, and uses no dyes. Most commonly used to visualize the fetus during pregnancy. Also used to observe the size, location, and actions of organs and blood flow through blood vessels (Doppler ultrasound).  Medical Imaging Procedures: CCTA Scan Coronary (CARDIAC) Computed Tomography Angiography (CCTA) SCAN Procedure: In this form of computer-assisted radiography, an iodine-containing contrast medium is injected into a vein and a beta blocker is given to decrease heart rate. Then, numerous x-ray beams trace an arc around the heart and a scanner detects the x-ray beams and transmits them to a computer, which transforms the information into a three- dimensional image of the coronary blood vessels on a monitor. The image produced is called a CCTA scan. Comments: Used primarily to determine if there are any coronary artery blockages (for example, atherosclerotic plaque or calcium) that may require an intervention such as angioplasty or stent. The CCTA scan can be rotated, enlarged, and moved at any angle. The procedure can take thousands of images of the heart within the time of a single heartbeat, so it provides a great amount of detail about the heart's structure and function.  Medical Imaging Procedures: PET scan Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Procedure: A substance that emits positrons (positively charged particles) is injected into the body, where it is taken up by tissues. The collision of positrons with negatively charged electrons in body tissues produces gamma rays that are detected by gamma cameras positioned around the subject. A computer receives signals from the gamma cameras and constructs a PET scan image, displayed in color on a video monitor. The PET scan shows where the injected substance is being used in the body. In the PET scan image shown here, the black and blue colors indicate minimal activity; the red, orange, yellow, and white colors indicate areas of increasingly greater activity. Comments: Used to study the physiology of body structures, such as metabolism in the brain or heart.  Medical Imaging Procedures: Endoscopy Endoscopy Procedure: Endoscopy involves the visual examination of the inside of body organs or cavities using a lighted instrument with lenses called an endoscope. The image is viewed through an eyepiece on the endoscope or projected onto a monitor. Comments: Examples include colonoscopy (used to examine the interior of the colon, which is part of the large intestine), laparoscopy (used to examine the organs within the abdominopelvic cavity), and arthroscopy (used to examine the interior of a joint, usually the knee).  Medical Imaging Procedures: Radionuclide Scanning Radionuclide Scanning Procedure: A radionuclide (radioactive substance) is introduced intravenously into the body and carried by the blood to the tissue to be imaged. Gamma rays emitted by the radionuclide are detected by a gamma camera outside the subject, and the data are fed into a computer. The computer constructs a radionuclide image and displays it in color on a video monitor. Areas of intense color take up a lot of the radionuclide and represent high tissue activity; areas of less intense color take up smaller amounts of the radionuclide and represent low tissue activity. Single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT) scanning is a specialized type of radionuclide scanning that is especially useful for studying the brain, heart, lungs, and liver. Comments: Used to study activity of a tissue or organ, such as searching for malignant tumors in body tissue or scars that may interfere with heart muscle activity. Summary Anatomy vs Anatomical position Physiology Supine, prone Levels of structural Directional terms organization Planes 11 body systems Body cavities Basic life processes Serous membranes Homeostasis Abdomen- regions Negative feedback and quadrants loop