Ch. 1 Test ANAT.docx

Anatomy   The study of the structure of the body - how does it relate to function.   Physiology   The study of dynamic processes in the body   Uses the methods of experimental science to determine how our body functions.   Subdisciplines: neurophysiology (physiology of the nervous system) and pathop...

Anatomy   The study of the structure of the body - how does it relate to function.   Physiology   The study of dynamic processes in the body   Uses the methods of experimental science to determine how our body functions.   Subdisciplines: neurophysiology (physiology of the nervous system) and pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease)   Histology   1. The microscopic structure of tissues and organs.  2. The study of such structure.     Histopathology   The microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease.   Pathology   Deals with the study of the nature, causes, processes, and effects of diseases.   Embryology   Focuses on the study of the development of embryos from the fertilization of the egg to the formation of a complete organism.   Cytology   The study of cellular structure and function   Major components of a cell are as follows:   Plasma membrane Cytoplasm Cytoskeleton Organelles Inclusions Cytosol   Excitability   The ability of a cell to respond to stimuli, especially the ability of nerve and muscle cells to produce membrane voltage changes in response to stimuli; irritability.   Homeostasis   The tendency of a living body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions in spite of changes in its external environment.   Stabilizes our body temperature, blood pressure, body weight, electrolyte balance, and pH.   Physiology maintains the stability and the loss of homeostatic control = death, illness   Pathophysiology is the study of unstable conditions that result our homeostatic controls fail.   Negative feedback and stability - maintains homeostasis - counteracts changes and return it to a stable state.   A self-corrective mechanism that underlies most homeostasis, in which a bodily change is detected and responses are activated that reverse the change and restore stability and preserve normal body function.   Maintains a dynamic equilibrium - a state of ever changing balance within limits   Regulates our blood pressure, blood glucose   By maintaining physiological equilibrium, negative feedback is the key mechanism for maintaining health.   Ex. Blood pressure - imbalance in homeostasis is detected by baroreceptors in large arteries near the heart - baroreceptors transmits nerve signals to our brain where our cardiac center that regulates our heart -When we elderly people get up quick, they feel dizzy - due to the feedback loop being insufficiently responsive so the drop in BP can result in decrease blood to the brain and can cause fainting. So, the faster the heart rate raises the BP, it restores homeostasis.   Components of a feedback loop   A receptor - sense changes like baroreceptors that monitor our BP.   1. A cell or organ specialized to detect a stimulus, such as a taste cell or the eye.   2. A protein molecule that binds and responds to a chemical such as a hormone, neurotransmitter, or odor molecule.   An integrating (control) center - cardiac center of the brain   It process information and makes a decision on what the appropriate response should be.   An effector - carries out the final corrective action   A molecule, cell, or organ that carries out a response to a stimulus.   Ex. The heart - the response is to have restoration of normal blood pressure is sensed by the receptor and the feedback loop is complete.   Positive feedback and rapid change   Positive feedback - normal way of producing rapid change - beneficial outcomes - amplifies or reinforces the change to a system, driving it further away from its original state.   Physiological change leads to greater change in the same direction.   Ex. Blood clotting process when a blood vessel is injured.   Ex. Childbirth - when the fetus pushes down to the cervix - nerve impulses from the cervix then transmit to the brain - our brain stimulates the pituitary gland and this secretes oxytocin - the oxytocin stimulates the uterine contractions and pushes the fetus toward cervix - the loop happens repeatedly until the fetus comes out.   the release of oxytocin during childbirth, which stimulates uterine contractions, leading to more oxytocin release and stronger contractions until the baby is delivered.   Positive can be harmful and life-threatening to our body - due to our bodies internal state than can go far from its homeostatic set point.   Ex. High fever - if the body rises up to 40 degree celcius, this is regarded as dangerous positive feedback loop - the metabolic rate raises up that produces the body to heat faster than it can get rid of - this is a vicious cycle if it raises up to 45 degree celcius -because positive feedback can create out of control situations that require medical treatment.   LEVELS OF HUMAN STRUCTURE   The organisms is composed of organ systems > organ systems are composed of organs Organs are composed of tissues > tissues are composed of cells > cells are composed (in part) of organelles > organelles are composed of molecules > molecules are composed of atoms.   Right order: from simple to complex   Molecule Organelle Tissue Organ Organ system Organism   Chemical (molecular) level: The human body is composed of atoms and molecules. These molecules are the building blocks of cells and are essential for the structure and function of all living organisms.   Cellular level: Cells are the smallest structure and functional units of the human body. They vary in size, shape and function. And they perform specific functions. Examples can include muscle cells, nerve cells and skin cells. And it contains organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum that carries out specific functions necessary for cell survival and function.   Tissue level: Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function. The four types of tissues in the human body are epithelial tissue, cognitive tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissue covers the body surfaces and lines internal organs. Cognitive tissue supports and connects other tissues in organs. Muscle tissue allows for movement, and nervous tissue transmits electrical signals throughout the body.   Organ level: Organs are structures composed of two or more different types of tissues that work together to perform a specific function. Examples are organs. Include the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys and brain. Each of these organs has a unique structure and function that contributes to the overall Physiology of the body.   Organ system level: Organ systems are groups of organs that work together to perform complex physiological functions necessary for the survival of the organisms. There are 11 major organ systems that includes integumentary system, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory system, digestive system, urinary system and reproductive system. They all have specific roles and functions that contribute to the overall homeostasis and well-being of our body.   Organism level (body as a whole): At the highest level of organization, the human body is an Organism consisting of all the organ systems working Together to maintain life.     The organism is a single, complete individual.   Organ system is a group of organs that carry out a basic function such as circulation, respiration, or digestion.   Our body has 11 organ systems - the organs of a systems are physically interconnected, such as the:   Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine = forming the digestive system.   Organ is a structure composed of two more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function. "internal organs"   Heart Kidneys Skin - largest organ Muscles Bones   Tissue is a group of similar cells and cell products that forms a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function.   4 primary classes:   Epithelial Connective Nervous Muscular   Cells are the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life.   A cell is a microscopic compartment enclosed in a fil called the plasma membrane - it contains one nucleus and a variety of other organelles.   Organelles are microscopic structures that carry out a cells individual functions.   Ex. Nuclei, mitochondria, centrioles, and lysosomes.   Organelles and other cellular components are composed of molecules.     Anatomical planes   Section   An actual cut or slice to reveal internal anatomy   Plane   An imaginary flat surface passing through the body   Three major anatomical planes   Sagittal Frontal Transverse   Sagittal plane   Any plane that extends from anterior to posterior and cephalic to caudal and that divides the body into right and left portions.  Compare median plane.   Median (midsagittal) plane   The sagittal plane that divides the body or an organ into equal right and left halves; also called midsagittal plane.   Parasagittal plane   Divide the body into unequal right and left portions.   Frontal plane   An anatomical plane that passes through the body or an organ from right to left and superior to inferior, such as a vertical plane that separates the anterior portion of the chest from the back; also called a  coronal plane.   Transverse (horizontal) plane   Passes across the body or an organ perpendicular to its long axis; therefore, it divides the body or organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.   The body is divided into two major regions   Axial Consist of the head, neck, and trunk Trunk - divided into the thoracic region above the diaphragm and the abdominal and pelvic regions below it.   Appendicular regions   Upper limb - arm, forearm, hand, fingers Lower limb - thigh, leg, ankle, foot, toes         Diaphragm - a muscular sheet   Separates the thoracic cavity above it from the abdominopelvic cavity below.   Thoracic cavity   Divided into the right, left and median portions by a partition called the mediastinum   The right and left of the thoracic contain the lungs which are enfolded in another two layered serous membrane called the pleura   Mediastinum   The thick median partition of the thoracic cavity that separates one pleural cavity from the other and contains the heart, great blood vessels, esophagus, trachea, and thymus.    The region between the lungs extending from the base of the neck to the diaphragm   Pericardium   The hear is enveloped by a two layers serous membrane   Abdominal cavity   The body cavity between the diaphragm and pelvic brim   The heart is enveloped by a two layered serous membrane called the pericardium   Contains most of the digestive organs, like spleen, kidneys, ureters   The lining of the abdominal cavity is the peritoneum   Pleura   A double-walled serous membrane that encloses each lung.   Pelvic cavity   The space enclosed by the true (lesser) pelvis, containing the urinary bladder, rectum, and internal reproductive organs.   Markedly narrower and its lower end tilts posteriorly   Contains the lowermost portion of the large intestine, the urinary bladder and urethra and the reproductive organs.   *the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity are not separated by a wall the way the abdominal and thoracic cavities are separated by the diaphragm.   Abdominopelvic cavity   Lined by two layered serous membrane called the peritoneum ( A serous membrane that lines the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen and covers the mesenteries and viscera.)   Parietal peritoneum   The outer layer, lining the abdominal wall   Visceral peritoneum   Posterior midline of the abdominal wall, it turns inward and becomes another layer   Also called mesentery (A serous membrane that binds the intestines together and suspends them from the abdominal wall; the visceral continuation of the peritoneum) - it forms a membranous curtain suspending and anchoring the viscera. Mesentery contain blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves supplying the viscera.   Serosa   At points where it enfolds and covers the outer surfaces of organs such as the stomach and small intestine.   Peritoneal cavity   The space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum     The human body has 11 organ systems and an immune system, which is a population of cells that inhabit multiple organs rather than as an organ system.   Integumentary system   Organs: skin, hair, nails, cutaneous glands, mammary glands   Functions: protection, water retention, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication.   Skeletal system   Organs: bones, cartilages, ligaments   Functions: support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid base balance.   Muscular system   Organs: skeletal muscles   Functions: movement, stability, communication, control of body openings, heat production.   Lymphatic system   Organs: lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, thymus, spleen, tonsils   Functions: recovery of excess tissue fluid, detection of pathogens, production of immune cells, defense against disease.   Respiratory system   Organs: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs   Functions: absorption of oxygen, discharge of carbon dioxide, acid base balance, speech   Urinary system   Organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra, pancreas   Functions: elimination of wastes; Regulation of blood volume and pressure; stimulation of red blood cell formation; control of fluid, electrolyte and acid base balance; detoxification.   Digestive system   Organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.   Functions: nutrient breakdown and absorption. Liver functions include metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood.   Male reproductive system   Organs: testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, penis   Functions: production and delivery of sperm; secretion of sex hormones.   Female reproductive system   Organs: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands   Functions: production of eggs; site of fertilization and fetal development; fetal nourishment; birth; lactation; secretion of sex hormones.   Nervous system   Organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia   Functions: rapid internal communication, coordination, motor control, and sensation   Endocrine system   Organs: pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries   Functions: hormone production, internal chemical communication, coordination   Circulatory system (endocrine)   Organs: heart, blood vessels   Functions: distribution of nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells, and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid base balance.     Systems of protection, support and movement   Integumentary Skeletal Muscular   Systems of internal communication and integration   Nervous system Endocrine system   Systems of fluid transport   Circulatory Lymphatic   Systems of intake and output   Respiratory Urinary Digestive   Systems of reproduction   Male reproductive Female reproductive       DIRECTIONAL TERMINOLOGY           Briefly describe the nature and function of the diaphragm     The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located beneath the lungs and separating the thoracic (chest) cavity from the abdominal cavity. It plays a crucial role in the process of breathing and respiratory function. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, which increases the volume of the thoracic cavity. This expansion creates a negative pressure within the lungs, causing air to be drawn into the respiratory system. When exhaling, the diaphragm relaxes and returns to its dome-shaped position, reducing the thoracic cavity's volume and pushing air out of the lungs. In summary, the diaphragm serves as the primary muscle responsible for the mechanical aspect of breathing, facilitating the inhalation and exhalation of air as part of the respiratory process.   Nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity   Right Hypochondriac Region: Liver Gallbladder Epigastric Region: Stomach Liver (portion) Pancreas Left Hypochondriac Region: Spleen Part of the stomach Left kidney Right Lumbar Region: Ascending colon of the large intestine Part of the liver Umbilical Region: Small intestine Transverse colon of the large intestine Left Lumbar Region: Descending colon of the large intestine Part of the left kidney Right Inguinal (Iliac) Region: Cecum (first part of the large intestine) Appendix Hypogastric (Pubic) Region: Urinary bladder Part of the small intestine Uterus (in females) Left Inguinal (Iliac) Region: Initial part of the sigmoid colon (last part of the large intestine) Part of the small intestine These regions provide a standard anatomical reference for describing the locations of various organs within the abdominopelvic cavity. Keep in mind that individual anatomical variations can occur, and the exact position of organs may vary slightly among individuals.     The ears are lateral to the nose The wrist is distal to the elbow The aorta is ventral to the vertebral column The sternal region is medial to the pectoral region The layer of peritoneum facing the body wall is called the parietal layer, and the layer on the surface of an internal organ is called the visceral layer. The elbow is proximal to the wrist because it is closer to the upper limbs point of origin. The diaphragm is inferior to the lungs Negative feedback is usually beneficial because it corrects deviations from a physiological set point. There are more organs than cells in the human body The pericardial sac is external to the heart, separated from it by the space of the pericardial cavity.     Anatomical Positions   Sagittal plane: extends vertically and divides the body of an organ into the right and left portions.   Median (midsagittal) plane: passes through the midline of the body and divides it into equal right and left halves.   Parasagittal plane: divide the body into unequal right and left portions   Frontal (coronal) plane: extends vertically, but perpendicular to the sagittal plane and divdes the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.   Transverse (horizontal plane): passes across the body or an organ perpendicular to its long axis; it divides the body or organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. Many CT and MRI scans are transverse sections.             Two major body cavities   Axial regions has cavities containing viscera, it contains brain, heart, lungs, stomach, intestines and kidneys. The cavities are lined by thin serous membranes - secretes lubricating fil of moisture.   Meninges: Three fibrous membranes between the central nervous system and surrounding bone: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. It protect the tissues from the hard protective bone that encloses it.   Dorsal Body Cavity: This cavity is located along the dorsal (back) surface of the body and is subdivided into two main regions: Cranial Cavity: This cavity houses the brain and is formed by the bones of the skull. Vertebral Cavity: This cavity contains the spinal cord and is formed by the vertebrae of the spinal column.   Ventral Body Cavity: This cavity is located along the ventral (front) surface of the body and is larger than the dorsal cavity. It is further divided into two main regions by the diaphragm: Thoracic Cavity: This cavity is located superior to the diaphragm and contains the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels. Abdominopelvic Cavity: This cavity is located inferior to the diaphragm and is further subdivided into two regions: Abdominal Cavity: This cavity contains the stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys. Pelvic Cavity: This cavity contains the reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and rectum. Diaphragm         Body Regions   The body is divided into two major regions: axial and appendicular regions     Right Hypochondriac Region: Liver Gallbladder   Left Hypochondriac Region: Spleen   Epigastric Region: Stomach Pancreas   Right Lumbar Region: Ascending colon   Left Lumbar Region: Descending colon   Umbilical Region: Small intestine Transverse colon   Right Inguinal (Iliac) Region: Cecum Appendix   Left Inguinal (Iliac) Region: Initial part of sigmoid   Hypogastric Region: Urinary bladder Female reproductive organs (uterus, ovaries) Male reproductive organs (part of the bladder, part of the rectum)   Four Quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity:   Right upper quadrant (RUQ) Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Right lower quadrant (RLQ) Left lower quadrant (LLQ)