Essentials of Managing Stress PDF

Chapter 1 The Nature of Stress “Tension is who you think you should be. Relaxation is who you...

Chapter 1 The Nature of Stress “Tension is who you think you should be. Relaxation is who you are.” —Ancient Chinese proverb A re you stressed? If the answer is yes, then consider yourself to be in good company. Several recent Harris and Gallup polls have noted an alarming trend in the psyche of the American public and beyond—to nearly all citizens of the global village. Across the board, without exception, people admit to having an increasing sense of anxiety, frustration, unease, and discontent in nearly every aspect of their lives. These problems include personal finances and long-term debt, domestic terrorism, political disgust, and the sustained impact of environmental disasters. As such, the face of stress can be found just about everywhere. Sadly, episodes of suicides, opiod addiction, school shootings, and personal bankruptcies are now so common that they no longer make the headline news as they once did. Ironically, in a country where the standard of living is considered to be the highest anywhere in the world, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that nearly one-quarter of the American population is reported to be on antidepressants. Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Estimates also suggest that one in three people suffer from a chronic disease, ranging from cancer and coronary heart disease (CHD) to diabetes, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis. For a country with one of the highest standards of living, something is very wrong with this picture. Furthermore, since the start of the Great Recession in 2008, a blanket of fear has covered much of the country, if not the world, keeping people in a perpetual, albeit low, state of anxiety. Global problems only seem to intensify our personal stressors. It doesn’t make a difference if you’re a college student or a CEO of a multi- national corporation, where you live, or how much money is in your checking account; stress is the equal opportunity destroyer! But it doesn’t have to be this way. Even as personal issues collide Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  with social and planetary problems creating a “perfect storm” of stress, we all have choices—in both our attitude and behaviors. This text will help you connect the dots between mind, body, and spirit to create positive choices that empower you to navigate your life through the turbulent waters of the human journey in the 21st century. Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  Times of Change and Uncertainty Today the words stress and change have become synonymous and the winds of change are in the air. Changes in the economy, technology, communications, information retrieval, health care, and dramatic changes in the weather are just some of the gale forces blowing in our collective faces. By and large, the average person doesn’t like change (particularly change they cannot control) because change tends to disrupt one’s comfort zones. It appears that the “known,” no matter how bad, is a safer bet than the unknown. Change, it should be noted, has always been part of the human landscape. However, today the rate of change has become so fast and furious, without an adequate reference point to anchor oneself, that stress holds the potential to create a perpetual sense of uneasiness in the hearts and minds of nearly everyone. Yet it doesn’t have to be this way. Where there is change, there is opportunity. At one time, getting married, changing jobs, buying a house, raising children, going back to school, dealing with the death of a friend or close relative, and suffering from a chronic illness were all considered to be major life events that might shake the foundations of anyone’s life. Although these major life events can and do play a significant role in personal upheaval, a new crop of social stressors has added to the critical mass of an already volatile existence, throwing things further out of balance. Consider how these factors directly influence your life: the rapid acceleration Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. of technology (from software upgrades to downloadable apps), the use of (if not addiction to) social media (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and Twitter), the proliferation of smartphones and Wi-Fi use, an accessible 24/7 society, global economic woes (e.g., gasoline prices, school loans, rent, food prices), global terrorism, carbon footprints, and public health issues from AIDS and West Nile virus to the latest outbreak of contagious staphylococcus infections. Times of change and uncertainty tend to magnify our personal stress. Perhaps the biggest looming concern facing people today is the issue of personal boundaries or lack thereof. The advances of high technology combined with a rapidly changing social structure have eroded personal boundaries. These boundaries include, but are not limited to, home and work, finances, personal privacy, Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  nutritional habits, relationships, and many, many more, all of which add to the critical mass of one’s personal stress. Even the ongoing war on terrorism appears to have no boundaries! Ironically, the lack of boundaries combined with factors that promote a fractured society, where people feel a lack of community and belonging, leads to a greater sense of alienation and isolation and this also intensifies our personal stress levels. Believe it or not, life wasn’t always like this. The stress phenomenon, as it is referred to today, is quite new with regard to the history of humanity. Barely a household expression when your parents were of your age, use of the word stress is now as common as the terms global warming, iPads, and smartphones. In fact, however, stress in terms of physical arousal can be traced back to the Stone Age as a “survival mechanism.” But what was once designed as a means of survival is now associated with the development of disease and illness that claims the lives of millions of people worldwide. The American Institute of Stress (www.stress.org) cites the following statistics: 43 percent of all adults suffer adverse health effects due to stress. 75 to 90 percent of all visits to primary care physicians are for stress-related complaints or disorders. Stress has been linked to all the leading causes of death, including heart disease, cancer, lung ailments, accidents, cirrhosis, and suicide. Some health experts now speculate that perhaps as much as 70 to 85 percent of all diseases and illnesses are stress- related. Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Comprehensive studies conducted by both the American Psychological Association (APA) and the Harvard School of Public Health provided a host of indicators suggesting that human stress is indeed a health factor to be reckoned with. Prior to 1955, the leading causes of death were the sudden onset of illness by infectious diseases (e.g., polio, rubella, tuberculosis, typhoid, and encephalitis) that in most cases have since been eradicated or brought under control by vaccines and medications. The post– World War II era ushered in the age of high technology, which considerably altered the lifestyles of nearly all peoples of every industrialized nation. The start of the 21st century has seen the influence of high technology on our lifestyles. The introduction of consumer products, such as the washer, dryer, microwave oven, Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  television, DVD player, laptop computer, and smartphone, were cited as luxuries to add more leisure time to the workweek. But as mass production of high-technology items increased, so too did the competitive drive to increase human effort and productivity, which in turn actually decreased leisure time, and thus created a plethora of unhealthy lifestyles, most notably obesity. Currently, the leading causes of death are dominated by what are referred to as lifestyle diseases—those diseases whose pathology develops over a period of several years, and perhaps even decades. Whereas infectious diseases are treatable by medication, lifestyle diseases are, for the most part, preventable or correctable by altering the habits and behaviors that contribute to their etiology. Previously, it was suggested that an association existed between stress and disease. Current research, however, suggests that there may, indeed, be a causal factor involved with several types of diseases, particularly heart disease, obesity, and auto-immune diseases. Regardless, it is well understood that the influence of stress weakens the body’s physiological systems, thereby rapidly advancing the disease process. The most notorious lifestyle disease, CHD, continues to be one of the leading causes of death in the United States, far exceeding all other causes. The American Heart Association states that one person dies from heart disease every 34 seconds. Although the incidence of CHD has decreased over the past decade, cancer— in all its many types—continues to climb the statistical charts as the second leading cause of death. According to 2012 statistics from the American Cancer Society (www.cancer.org), cancer claims the lives of one out of every four people in the United Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. States. Alarming increases in suicides, child and spouse abuse, self-mutilation, homicides, alcoholism, and drug addiction are only additional symptoms of a nation under stress. Today, research shows that people still maintain poor coping skills in the face of the personal, social, and even global changes occurring over the course of their lives. Originally, the word stress was a term used in physics, primarily to describe enough tension or force placed on an object to bend or break it. Relaxation, on the other hand, was defined as any nonwork activity done during the evenings or on Sunday afternoons when all the stores were closed. On rare occasions, if one could afford it, relaxation meant a vacation or holiday at some faraway place. Conceptually, relaxation was a value, influenced by Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  several religions and represented as a day of rest. The word stress as applied to the human condition was first made popular by noted physiologist Hans Selye in his book The Stress of Life, where he described his research: to understand the physiological responses to chronic stress and its relationship to disease (dis- ease). Today, the word stress is frequently used to describe the level of tension people feel is placed on their minds and souls by the demands of their jobs, relationships, and responsibilities in their personal lives. Oddly, for some, stress seems to be a status symbol tied to self-esteem. Relaxation, meanwhile, has been transformed from an American value into a luxury many people find they just don’t have enough time for. With the current economic situation, some interesting insights have been observed regarding work and leisure. The average workweek has expanded from 40 to 60 hours. The U.S. Department of Labor and Statistics reports that, with more service-related jobs being created, more overtime is needed to meet the demands of the customers. Not only do more people spend more time at work, they spend more time driving to and from work (which is not considered work time). Moreover, leisure time at home is often related to work activities, resulting in less time for rest and relaxation. Downtime is also compromised. Since 2001, Expedia has conducted an annual survey on vacations (called the Vacation Deprivation Study). The 2009 results revealed that one out of every three Americans don’t use all of their vacation time. One in five respondents cited work responsibilities/pressure as the primary reason for canceling a vacation. A new word entered the American lexicon in the summer Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. of 2010; the staycation, where people simply stayed home for vacation due to financial and/or work constraints. Those who do head to the mountains or beaches for vacation often take their work (in the form of smartphones, iPads, and laptops) with them— in essence, never really leaving their job. It’s no surprise that staying plugged in doesn’t give the mind a chance to unwind or the body a chance to relax. In comparison to other countries, Americans take less vacation time than other global citizens. (Germans, on average, take 4–6 weeks/year.) “The stress associated with the current economy makes the need for time away from work even more important than ever, and it’s unfortunate that one-third of Americans won’t use all of their vacation days this year,” said Tim MacDonald, general manager of Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  Expedia.com. The “dividend” of high technology has proven to be an illusion that has resulted in a stressed lifestyle, which in turn creates a significant health deficit. Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  Definitions of Stress In contemporary times, the word stress has many connotations and definitions based on various perspectives of the human condition. In Eastern philosophies, stress is considered to be an absence of inner peace. In Western culture, stress can be described as a loss of emotional control. Noted healer Serge Kahili King has defined stress as any change experienced by the individual. This definition may be rather general, but it is quite correct. Psychologically speaking, stress as defined by noted researcher Richard Lazarus is a state of anxiety produced when events and responsibilities exceed one’s coping abilities. Physiologically speaking, stress is defined as the rate of wear and tear on the body. Selye added to his definition that stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand placed upon it to adapt, whether that demand produces pleasure or pain. Selye observed that whether a situation was perceived as good (e.g., a job promotion) or bad (e.g., the loss of a job), the physiological response or arousal was very similar. The body, according to Selye, doesn’t know the difference between good and bad stress. However, with new psychoneuroimmunological data available showing that there are indeed some physiological differences between good and bad stress (e.g., the release of different neuropeptides), specialists in the field of holistic medicine have expanded Lazarus’ and Selye’s definitions as follows: Stress is the inability to cope with a perceived (real or imagined) threat to one’s Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being, which results in a series of physiological responses and adaptations. The important word to emphasize here is perceived (the interpretation), for what might seem to be a threat to one person may not even merit a second thought to another individual. For example, not long ago a raffle was held, with the winning prize being an all- expenses-paid one-week trip for two to a beach resort in Bermuda. Kelly, who won the prize, was ecstatic and already had her bags packed. Her husband, John, was mortified because he hated to fly and he couldn’t swim. In his mind this would not be a fun time. In fact, he really wished they hadn’t won. Each perceived the same situation in two entirely different ways. Moreover, with the wisdom of hindsight, our perceptions often change. Many episodes that at the time seemed catastrophic later appear insignificant, as Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  humorously stated by Mark Twain when he commented, “I’m an old man and I have known a great many troubles, but most of them never happened.” The holistic definition of stress points out that it is a very complex phenomenon affecting the whole person, not just the physical body, and that it involves a host of factors, some of which may not yet even be recognized by scholars and researchers. As more research is completed, it becomes increasingly evident that the responses to stress add up to more than just physical arousal; yet it is ultimately the body that remains the battlefield for the war games of the mind. Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  The Stress Response In 1914, Harvard physiologist Walter Cannon first coined the term fight-or-flight response to describe the dynamics involved in the body’s physiological arousal to survive a threat. In a series of animal studies, Cannon noted that the body prepares itself for one of the two modes of immediate action: to attack or fight and defend oneself from the pursuing threat, or to run and escape the ensuing danger. What Cannon observed was the body’s reaction to acute stress, what is now commonly called the stress reaction. Additional observations suggested that the fight response was triggered by anger or aggression and was usually employed to defend territorial boundaries or attack aggressors equal or smaller in size. The fight response required physiological preparations that would recruit power and strength for a short duration, or what is now described as short but intense anaerobic work. Conversely, the flight response, he thought, was induced by fear. It was designed to fuel the body to endure prolonged movement such as running away from lions and bears. In many cases, however, it included not only fleeing but also hiding or withdrawal. (A variation on the flight response is the freeze response, often noted with post-traumatic stress disorder, where a person simply freezes, like a deer staring into a car’s headlights.) The human body, in all its metabolic splendor, actually prepares itself to do both (fight and flight) at the same time. In terms of evolution, it appears that this dynamic was so advantageous to survival that it developed in Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. nearly all mammalian species, including us. (Some experts now suggest, however, that our bodies have not adapted to the stress- induced lifestyles of the 21st century.) In simple terms, there are four stages of the fight-or-flight response: Stage 1. Stimuli from one or more of the five senses are sent to the brain (e.g., a scream, the smell of fire, the taste of poison, a passing truck in your lane). Stage 2. The brain deciphers the stimulus as either a threat or a nonthreat. If the stimulus is not regarded as a threat, this is the end of the response (e.g., the scream came from the television). If, however, the response is decoded as a real threat, the brain then Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  activates the nervous and endocrine systems to quickly prepare for defense and/or escape. Stage 3. The body stays activated, aroused, or “keyed-up” until the threat is over. Stage 4. The body returns to homeostasis, a state of physiological calmness, once the threat is gone. It is hypothesized that the fight-or-flight response developed primarily against threats of a physical nature, those that jeopardized the survival of the individual. Although clear physical threats still exist in today’s culture, including possible terrorism, they are nowhere near as prevalent as those threats perceived by the mind and, more specifically, the ego. In a theory put forward by a disciple of Selye’s, Simeons (1961), and repeated by Sapolsky (1998), it is suggested that, in effect, the fight-or-flight response is an antiquated mechanism that has not kept evolutionary pace with the development of the human mind. Consequently, the stress response becomes activated in all types of threats, not just physical intimidations. The physiological repercussions can, and do, prove fatal. The body enters a state of physical readiness when you are about to receive your final exam grades or walk into an important meeting late, just as it does when you sense someone is following you late at night in an unlit parking lot. Moreover, this same stress response kicks in, to the same degree and intensity, even when the threat is wholly imaginary, in reaction to everything from monsters hiding under your bed when you were 4 years old, to the unsubstantiated idea that your boss doesn’t like you anymore and is out to get you. Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Cannon noted the activation of several physiological mechanisms in this fight-or-flight response, affecting nearly every physiological system in the body, for the preparation of movement and energy production. These are just a few of the reactions: 1. Increased heart rate to pump oxygenated blood to working muscles 2. Increased blood pressure to deliver blood to working muscles 3. Increased ventilation to supply working muscles with oxygen for energy metabolism 4. Vasodilation of arteries to the body’s periphery (arms and legs) with the greatest muscle mass Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  5. Increased serum glucose for metabolic processes during muscle contractions 6. Increased free fatty acid mobilization as an energy source for prolonged activity (e.g., running) 7. Increased blood coagulation and decreased clotting time in the event of bleeding 8. Increased muscular strength 9. Decreased gastric movement and abdominal blood flow to allow blood to go to working muscles 10. Increased perspiration to cool body-core temperature Unfortunately, the metabolic and physiological changes that are deemed essential for human movement in the event of attack, pursuit, or challenge are quite ineffective when dealing with events or situations that threaten the ego, such as receiving a parking ticket or standing in a long line at the grocery store, yet the body responds identically to all types of perceived threats. Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  Types of Stress To the disbelief of some, not all stress is bad for you. In fact, there are many who believe that humans need some degree of stress to stay healthy. The human body craves homeostasis, or physiological calm, yet it also requires physiological arousal to ensure the optimal functioning of several organs, including the heart and musculoskeletal system. How can stress be good? When stress serves as a positive motivation, it is considered beneficial. Beyond this optimal point, stress of any kind does more harm than good. Actually, there are three kinds of stress: eustress, neustress, and distress. Eustress is good stress and arises in any situation or circumstance that a person finds motivating or inspiring. Falling in love might be an example of eustress; meeting a movie star or professional athlete may also be a type of eustress. Usually, situations that are classified as eustress are enjoyable and for this reason are not considered to be a threat. Neustress describes sensory stimuli that have no consequential effect; it is considered neither good nor bad. News of an earthquake in a remote corner of the world might fall into this category. The third type of stress, distress, is considered bad and often is abbreviated simply as stress. There are two kinds of distress: acute stress, or that which surfaces, is quite intense, and disappears quickly, and chronic stress, or that which may not appear quite so intense, yet seems to linger for prolonged periods of time (e.g., hours, days, weeks, or Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. months). An example of acute stress is the following: You are casually driving down the highway, the wind from the open sunroof is blowing through your hair, and you feel pretty good about life. With a quick glance in your rearview mirror you see flashing blue lights. Yikes! So you slow down and pull over. The police car pulls up behind you. Your heart is racing, your voice becomes scratchy, and your palms are sweating as you try to retrieve license and registration from your wallet while rolling your window down at the same time. When the officer asks you why you were speeding you can barely speak; your voice is three octaves higher than usual. After the officer runs a check on your car and license, he only gives you a warning for speeding. Whew! He gets back in his car and leaves. You give him time to get out of sight, start your engine, and signal to get back onto the highway. Within minutes your heart Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  is calm, your palms dry, and you start singing to the song on the radio. The threat is over. The intensity of the acute stress may seem cataclysmic, but it is very short-lived. Chronic stressors, on the other hand, are not as intense but their duration is unbearably long. Examples might include the following: being stuck for a whole semester with “the roommate from hell,” a credit card bill that only seems to grow despite monthly payments, a boss who makes your job seem worse than that of a galley slave, living in a city you cannot tolerate, or maintaining a relationship with a girlfriend, boyfriend, husband, or wife that seems bad to stay in but worse to leave. For this reason, chronic stressors are thought to be the real villains. According to the American Institute of Stress (AIS), it is this type of stress that is associated with disease because the body is perpetually aroused for danger. A concept called the Yerkes-Dodson principle, which is applied to athletic performance, lends itself quite nicely to explaining the relationship among eustress, distress, and health. As can be seen in FIGURE 1.1, when stress increases, moving from eustress to distress, performance or health decreases and there is greater risk of disease and illness. The optimal stress level is the midpoint, prior to where eustress turns into distress. Studies indicate that stress-related hormones in optimal doses actually improve physical performance and mental-processing skills like concentration, making you more alert. Beyond that optimal level, though, all aspects of performance begin to decrease in efficiency. Physiologically speaking, your health is at serious risk. It would be simple if this optimal level was the same for all people, but it’s not. Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Hence, the focus of any effective stress-management program is twofold: (1) to find out where this optimal level of stress is for you so that it can be used to your advantage rather than becoming a detriment to your health status, and (2) to reduce physical arousal levels using both coping skills and relaxation techniques so that you can stay out of the danger zone created by too much stress. Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  FIGURE 1.1 The Yerkes-Dodson curve illustrates that, to a point, stress or arousal can actually increase performance. Stress to the left of the midpoint is considered to be eustress. Stress beyond the midpoint, however, is believed to detract from performance and/or health status and is therefore labeled distress. Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  Types of Stressors Any situation, circumstance, or stimulus that is perceived to be a threat is referred to as a stressor, or that which causes or promotes stress. As you might imagine, the list of stressors is not only endless but varies considerably from person to person. Acute stress is often the result of rapid-onset stressors—those that pop up unexpectedly—like a phone call in the middle of the night or the discovery that you have lost your car keys. Usually the body begins to react before a full analysis of the situation is made, but a return to a state of calm is also imminent. Chronic stressors— those that may give some advance warning yet manage to cause physical arousal anyway, often merit more attention because their prolonged influence on the body appears to be more significant. Much research has been conducted to determine the nature of stressors, and they are currently divided into three categories: bioecological, psychointrapersonal, and social (Girdano, Everly, and Dusek, 2012). Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  Bioecological Influences Chemtrails, global warming, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) not withstanding, there are several biological and ecological factors that may trigger the stress response in varying degrees, some of which are outside our awareness. These are external influences, including sunlight, gravitational pull, solar flares, and electromagnetic fields, that affect our biological rhythms. From the field of chronobiology we learn that these factors affect three categories of biological rhythms: (1) circadian rhythms, fluctuations in physiological functions over the course of a 24-hour period (e.g., body temperature); (2) ultradian rhythms, fluctuations that occur over less than a 24-hour period (such as stomach contractions and cell divisions); and (3) infradian rhythms, changes that occur in periods longer than 24 hours (e.g., the menses). These biological changes are influenced by such natural phenomena as the earth’s orbit and axis rotation, which give us periods of light and darkness as well as seasonal differences. A prime example of a bioecological influence is seasonal affective disorder (SAD), a condition affecting many people who live at or near the Arctic Circle. Many of these people become depressed when they are deprived of sunlight for prolonged periods of time. But technological changes are also included in this category, an example being jet lag as a result of airplane travel through several time zones. Electrical pollution, environmental toxins, solar radiation, and noise pollution are other potential bioecological influences. GMOs, petrochemicals, synthetic chemicals, and some types of nanotechnology are considered new bioecological threats. In addition, some synthetic Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. food additives may trigger the release of various stress hormones throughout the body. Note that there is a growing opinion among some health practitioners that increased stress levels in the 21st century may be a direct result of our being out of touch with the natural elements that so strongly influence our body’s physiological systems. In any case, some of these bioecological factors can be positively influenced by lifestyle changes, including dietary habits, exercise, and the regular practice of relaxation techniques, which bring a sense of balance back into our lives. Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  Psychointrapersonal Influences Our current understanding is that psychointrapersonal influences make up the greatest percentage of stressors. These are the perceptions of stimuli that we create through our own mental processes. Psychointrapersonal stressors involve those thoughts, values, beliefs, attitudes, opinions, and perceptions that we use to defend our identity or ego. When any of these is challenged, violated, or even changed, the ego is often threatened and the stress response is the outcome. Psychointrapersonal stressors reflect the unique constructs of our personality, and in the words of stress researcher Kenneth Pelletier, represent “the chasm between the perceived self and the ideal self-image.” These influences are the most likely to cause stress. For this reason it becomes imperative to intercept the stress response in the mind before it cascades down as a rush of stress hormones into the body to cause potential damage. Social Influences Social influences have long been the subject of research to explain the plight of individuals who are unable to cope with their given environment. Most notable is the issue of overcrowding and urban sprawl. Studies conducted on several species have shown that when their numbers exceed the territorial boundary of each animal, despite an abundance of food and water, several seemingly healthy animals die off (Allen, 1983). This need for personal space appears to be universal in the animal kingdom. This includes humans, who likewise begin to show signs of Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. frustration in crowded urban areas, traffic jams, long lines at checkout stands, or whenever their personal space is “invaded.” The origin of this particular social influence may be instinctual in nature. Additional social causes of stress include financial insecurity, the effects of relocation, some technological advances, violation of human rights, and low socioeconomic status, to name but a few. New to the list of social influences are global warming concerns and water resource issues as the global population increases, taxing our very lifestyles with regard to scarcity issues. Social Stress in America: A Twenty-First- Century Look Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  Social influences linked to stress have been studied for decades, most notably by Holmes and Rahe with the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) and the concept of life change units (LCUs). It was their work that highlighted the list of top life stressors, including death of a spouse, loss of a job, death of a child, divorce, and high mortgage payments. While these stressors haven’t changed, the pace of society has moved into warp speed. With this rapid change more stressors have been added to the list, and the impact of stress on one’s health has been confirmed. For the past 10 years, the American Psychological Association has conducted a yearly survey titled “Stress in America: Paying with Our Health.” From interviews with over 3000 people in various demographic populations (gender, income levels, generational groups, etc.), the results are not promising. The key findings, published in the spring of 2015, revealed that although reported stress levels have decreased slightly over the past few years, over half of people between the ages of 18 and 40 report their stress level above 5 on a scale of 1 to 10. Seniors appeared to have the least stress; millennials have the most. The top reasons for stress included (1) financial pressures, (2) work, (3) economy, (4) family issues, and (5) health issues. Overall, women report more stress than men (and the gap is widening), and children appear to model their stress behavior on their parents’. Effective coping skills appear to be in short supply, according to this survey. The conclusions drawn from this study underscore the relationship between stress and disease/illness and show that people need to harness better stress management skills. Similar to the APA “Stress in America” study, in 2014 National Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. Public Radio and The Kaiser Health Foundation conducted a series titled “The Burden of Stress in America.” Here are some of their findings: Half of those questioned (over 2000 people) cited a major stressful experience in the past year. Health-related issues are stressful experiences most frequently mentioned. Feelings of being overwhelmed with responsibilities and financial struggles top the list of those who experience the greatest stress. Additional stressors included work problems, health problems, family issues, and being unhappy with physical appearances. Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  This study also looked at common daily stressors and hassles. Topping the list were juggling family schedules, disillusion with government politics, watching/reading/listening to the news, household chores, running errands, car problems, commuting to work, losing cell phones, and using social media. Whether it be daily hassles or bigger issues, both sleep patterns and eating behaviors were greatly (negatively) impacted by stress. Not all people reported having stress, and among those who appear to cope well, many credit their resilient personality traits, family and friends, spending time outdoors, hobbies, physical exercise, meditation, and time with pets. Although major life events like getting married or relocating for a new job may be chronic stressors to some, renowned stress researcher Richard Lazarus hypothesized in 1984 that the accumulation of acute stressors or daily life hassles, such as locking your keys in your car, playing telephone tag, or driving to work every day in traffic, is just as likely to adversely affect one’s health as the death of a spouse. These hassles are often based on unmet expectations that trigger an anger response of some type, whereas stressors of a chronic nature more often than not appear to have a greater association with fear and anxiety. Lazarus defined hassles as “daily interactions with the environment that were essentially negative.” He also hypothesized that a balance of emotional experiences—positive emotions as well as negative ones—is necessary, and that people who have no exposure to life’s “highs” or emotional uplifts are also susceptible to disease and illness. Further research by Lazarus (1984), Ornstein and Sobel (1990), and others have proved that his Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. hypothesis has significant merit regarding stress and disease. As might be expected, the issue of lifestyle habits, changes, and hassles as social influences has come under attack by those who argue that perception or cognition plays an important role in the impact of stressors. Suffice it to say that all stressors, regardless of classification, are connected to human well-being in a very profound way. The General Adaptation Syndrome Following Cannon’s lead early in the 20th century, Hans Selye, a young endocrinologist who created a name for himself as a leading researcher in this field, studied the fight-or-flight response, Seaward, Brian Luke. Essentials of Managing Stress, Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ithaca-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5844045. Created from ithaca-ebooks on 2020-11-17 14:45:45.  specifically the physiological effects of chronic stress, using rats as subjects. In experiments designed to stress the rats, Selye noted that several physiological adaptations occurred as a result of repeated exposures to stress, adaptations that had pathological repercussions. Examples of these stress-induced changes included the following: 1. Enlargement of the adrenal cortex (a gland that produces stress hormones) 2. Constant release of stress hormones; corticosteroids released from the adrenal cortex 3. Atrophy or shrinkage of lymphatic glands (thymus gland, spleen, and lymph nodes) 4. Significant decrease in the white blood cell count 5. Bleeding ulcerations of the stomach and colon 6. Death of the organism Many of these changes were very subtle and often went unnoticed until permanent damage had occurred. Selye referred to these collective changes as the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), a process in which the body tries to accommodate stress by adapting to it. From his research, Selye identified three stages of the general adaptation syndrome: Stage 1: Alarm reaction. The alarm reaction describes Cannon’s original fight-or-flight response. In this stage several body systems are activated, primarily the nervous system and the endocrine Copyright © 2019. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. All rights reserved. system, followed by the cardiovascular, pulmonary, and musculoskeletal systems. Like a smoke detector alarm buzzing late at night, all senses are put on alert until the danger is over. Stage 2: Stage of resistance. In the resistance stage, the body tries to revert back to a state of physiological ca