Cell Biology (Cytology) PDF

Cell Biology (Cytology) Cell Shape Historical Background - Long for contraction - muscle cells Prokaryotic Period - before/primitive - With protoplasmic processes for - Karyon - nucleus...

Cell Biology (Cytology) Cell Shape Historical Background - Long for contraction - muscle cells Prokaryotic Period - before/primitive - With protoplasmic processes for - Karyon - nucleus conduction of impulses (nerve cell) - bacteria/archaea - Concave disk for distribution of - Protist - normally on stagnant water oxygen (blood cell) - unicellular Prokaryotic Eukaryotic - May circular DNA - cause kaya antibiotic - True nucleus resistant ang bacteria - Plants - Haploid (23 chromosome) - Animals - Can be asexual & sexual (conjugate) - Fungi Eukaryotic - Multicellular - Diploid (46 chromosome) - All of body cells except body cells (somatic) Sex cells - Gametes - Germ cell - Sperm - ovum/egg - Reproductive cells Mitosis - process which cell replicates its Cell Theory chromosomes then segregates them, producing two Robert Hooke identical nuclei in preparation for cell division - Used oak tree because it’s soft to slice (somatic) - Cellulae = cell Robert Brown Meiosis - cell division in sexually reproducing - Discovered plant nucleus using organisms (sex cell) narcissus (daffodil) - Orchids Organelles - little organs - Cytoplasmic streaming - movement inside cytoplasm Parts of Cell: Felix Dujardin 1. Plasma Membrane - Dujardin means from the garden a. Phospholipid (head) - polar, loves - Cell is not empty, it is filled with water thick, jelly like (sarcode/protoplasm) Hydrocarbon (tail) - nonpolar, hates Johannes Purkinje water - Protoplasm - living portion of the cell - composed of fatty acid - cytoplasm - saturated with hydrogen - karyoplasm (within nucleus) b. Cholesterol - synthesized in SER - nucleoplasm (within nucleus) - Fluidity Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska (1932) - Mataas cholesterol - bababa - TEM fluidity and vice versa c. Membrane proteins Cell Theory Two types: - All cells made up cell Integral - embedded/ intrinsic\ - Structural and functioning unit of an organism - Permanent - self-reproduction - Use in transport Cell size channeling - Loargest cell - nerve cell in giraffe's Peripheral - outside/extrinsic neck (3.0 m in length) - Temporary - Largest cell ostrich egg - Remove turns into Micrometer enzymes - Unit of measure in the study of cell d. Barrier Mycoplasma - Active diffusion - Smallest cell, a bacterium - Facilitated diffusion - 0.0001 mm in diameter - Vesicular transport 2. Cytoskeleton - network of protein filaments - Magkakaron ng mutation - For shape and support kapag nasira ang chromosomes microfilament/actin (+ myosin (protein) = c. Cilia - brush-like - sweep (moves muscle contraction) fluid) a. Cytokinesis of mitosis - PMAT Flagella - whip-like (for cell - division of cytoplasm movement) - Microtubules are structural components of these and involve in their movement b. Diapedesis of WBCs (leukocyte) 3. Nucleus a. Nuclear envelope/membrane - Double-bound membrane Outer - ribosomes Inner - lamins - Control nuclear envelope - Interact with onomatin during cell division c. Phagocytosis of WBCs - Disorder leads to mutation - Cell eating (pinocytosis - cell - Progeria (sakit) drinking) b. Nuclear pores - Process by which macrophages - Passageway - daan ng ion, proteins, engulf and destroy pathogens, nucleotides damage cells, and foreign - Nucleus to cytoplasm and vice versa substance c. Nucleulos (li) - site for ribosome production - rRNA synthesis - bind proteins then produces ribosomes d. Chromatin - DNA + histone (protein) Nucleosome (8) Euchromatin - loose - Expression of DNA - Pseudopodia (false-feet) - Transcription (DNA - mRNA) of - Extension of cytoplasm para mRNA maabot ang kakainin Heterochromatin - tight (reserve) Intermediate filaments - Near lamins - Regulates cell adhesion to the Transcription - DNA convert to mRNA extracellular membrane/matrix - Exits thru nuclear pore and bind with RER - Cell to ecm DNA Duplication - Cell to cell (intracellular) - Interface before PMAT - Cell to organelles RNA types: - Para di malikot - mRNA Microtubules - tRNA - Alpha tubulin - rRNA - Meta tubulin Chromatin - thread-like a. Rail-road system Chromatid - condense DNA - transcription RNA - translation - passage/pathway - transport - Protein Synthesis intracellular - dynein (minus) and kinesin (plus) - motor proteins that move along microtubules in opposite direction b. Cell division - PMAT - Gumagawa ng spindle fibers  Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum · Trans Face/Golgi – nasa likod na part - Studded with ribosomes a. Site for protein synthesis · Dictyosome – golgi body sa plant Dadalhin sa: Functions: Lysosomes (suicide bag) - May protease - gagawin amino acid 1. Receiving materials from SER and RER ang protein 2. Modification (Alter, Change) - Digestive enzyme - Hydralses · Glycosylation - Hydrolytic enzymes Plasma membrane · N-type - Magiging membrane protein o Asparagine, kaya rin gawin ni RER (peripheral) · O-type Excreted - out of cell b. Protein folding o serine + sugar residue c. Glycosylation - addition or removal of sugar o Threonine + sugar residue residue N-type protein + sugar residue (glycosidase) o Exclusive lang kay golgi Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum 3. Large Molecule Packaging - No ribosomes · Destinations: Plasma Membrane, Lysosome, Functions: Excreted 1. Lipid Metabolism – breakdown lipases Ribosomes · fatty acids · site for protein synthesis · phospholipids · mRna + proteins = transcription · cholesterol · Membrane Proteins (Destinations: Plasma Membrane, Lysosome, Excreted) o steroid · Makikita rin sa cytoplasm - estrogen - Cytosolic proteins - testosterone · cytosol 2. Biotransformation Structure: Made up of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and · xenobiotic metabolism – creates enzyme for proteins; exists freely in the cytoplasm or attached to detoxification the Rough ER. · CYP 450 – for liver (para madetoxify since liver Function: Synthesizes proteins by translating ang nagfifilter ng alcohol, toxins, drugs) mRNA into amino acid sequences (protein synthesis). 3. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Discoverer: Observed by George Emil Palade (1955), who described them as particles in the · Storage of calcium (important for bone structure) cytoplasm. 4. Glycogen Eukaryotic Ribosome Composition: · Para magamit in biological processes, · Small Subunit: 40S (contains 18S rRNA) ibebebreakdown by GLYCOGENOLYSIS · Large Subunit: 60S (contains 28S, 5.8S, and 5S · Starch, energy storage for animals rRNA) · Glycogen-6-phosphate · Total Size: 80S (Svedberg units) Golgi Apparatus Prokaryotic Ribosome Composition: · Golgi Body/Complex · Small Subunit: 30S (contains 16S rRNA) · Camillo Golgi – using a staining technique to · Large Subunit: 50S (contains 23S and 5S rRNA) visualize the structure · Total Size: 70S · Cis Face/Golgi – nakaharap sa ER Vesicle Fatty acid metabolism - branch -chain fatty acids (BCFA) - · Exo – in, Endo – out digest gamit alpha oxidation - Very long chain - beta oxidation · Lalamove ng cell Magiging Acetyl-CoA at acyl-CoA (need para · Small sacs of secretary material pinched off from usuable ang FA) the cisternae Make lipids - cholesterol - hormones - · Move from the Golgi complex to the plasma steroids membrane (with the assistance of actin filaments) Ethanol metabolism and liberate their contents outside of the cell Discoverer: Mitochondria · Discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898) using a · Generator kasi sya ang naglalabas ng energy staining technique to visualize the structure, which includes vesicle-like structures · Double-membrane Lysosomes · May sariling mtDNA – Mitochondrial DNA · Membrane-bound vesicles containing digestive · Nakukuha sa nanay enzymes · Ginagamit sa protein synthesis · Breakdown of waste materials, damaged organelles, and pathogens through enzymatic o 10-15% ng protein digestion. · Discovered by Christian de Duve (1955), who coined the term "lysosome." · Suicide bag/recycling body · Breakdown large molecules · Digestive enzymes - Hydrolytic enzymes Cytoplasm - Hydrolases · The jelly-like material inside the outer membrane · Nucleases of a cell that holds the nucleus, organelles, and etc · Lipases · Supports and suspends organelles, and facilitates the movement of materials within the cell. · Proteases · The term "cytoplasm" was first used by Rudolf · Glucosidases von Kölliker in 1863. Autophagy – may organelle na hindi nagfufunction Dalawang portion Autolysis – pag damaged na ang buong cell, 1. Cytosol – liquid portion, space outside the nucleus magseself-destruct, ilalabas na yung enzymes para mawala or magamit ng iba 2. Organelles – membrane bound Peroxisomes Sa Nucleus: · Responsible for protecting the cell from Nucleoplasm/Karyoplasm – production of hydrogen peroxide Counterpart ng cytoplasm within the nucleus · Contain an oxidation enzyme, known as catalase Vacuoles · Catalase breaks down the hydrogen peroxide to · Large, membrane-bound sacs filled with fluid form one oxygen molecule and two water (mostly water), more prominent in plant cells. molecules Stores nutrients, waste products, and helps maintain turgor pressure in plant cells. - Oxidative organelles - neutralize free radicals · Described by Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1676) Oxygen added in the reaction producing during his microscopic studies. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), gamit enzyme · For storage of water/nutrients/waste (catalase, oxidase, metabolic enzymes) icoconvert para maging water at oxygen neutralizing the toxicity (deins toxic) · 50% sa cell ng plants kaya nakakastand sa init ng araw · Sa plants – 1 malaki · Sa animals – 3 maliit · Paramecium Parang bump car ang movement Nasa tubig, protist sya Centrosome (and Centrioles) · 100 – grana · Composed of two centrioles, which are · Space – stroma cylindrical structures made of microtubules, surrounded by a protein matrix. · Nakadikit para magconnect – stroma lamella · Organizes microtubules and plays a key role in cell division (mitotic spindle formation). · Discovered by Edouard van Beneden (1883), with centrioles described in more detail by Theodor Boveri. · Present lang during cell division, if wala, dormant · Walang centrioles ang halaman kasi di naman sila nagcecell divide Cell Wall (Plant Cells, Fungi, and Some Prokaryotes) · Rigid outer layer made of cellulose in plants, chitin in fungi, and peptidoglycan in bacteria. · Provides structural support, protection, and helps maintain cell shape. · First described by Robert Hooke in 1665 when observing cork cells. · Reason why hindi kaya nguyain and idigest ang halaman kasi may cell wall at cellulase · Pectin o Nagcacause ng stiffness, kaya parang jam Chloroplasts (Plant Cells Only) · Double membrane-bound organelle; contains thylakoids stacked into grana. · Contains chlorophyll for capturing light. · Site of photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy (glucose). · Julius von Sachs (1865) identified the role of chloroplasts in photosynthesis · Chlorophyll – green pigment · Piso – thylakoid (chlorophyll) · Sampo - granum Transport of Materials Across Membrane · The net movement of particles from a region of greater concentration to a region of lesser concentration Facilitated Diffusion Osmosis · Kabaligtaran ng diffusion · The diffusion of water or solvents through a semi-permeable membrane from lower osmotic pressure to greater osmotic pressure · Depends on the amount of solutes; when the concentration of solutes is higher than the solvent, the greater osmotic pressure and vice versa · Merong solute and solvent na involved Passive Transport Osmotic Solution · Transport without the use of energy There are three different types of solutions: · Non-polar, anytime pede lumabas & pumasok An isotonic solution is one that has the same o Water concentration of solutes both inside and outside the cell. · From high cg to low cg A hypertonic solution (RRRshRink) is one Facilitated Diffusion that has a higher solute concentration outside the cell than inside. o May nagguguide papasok A hypotonic solution (hypotok) is one that o One at a time has a higher solute concentration inside the cell than outside. TURGOR PRESSURE o Polar – protein, other nutrients Active Transport · Requires ATP (energy) · From low cg to high cg · Sodium-Potassium Pump Bulk Transport – malalaki Exocytosis · Moves out of the cell Endocytosis · Enclosed in membranous vesicle · Papasok 2 types · Phagocytosis – cell eating Types of Osmosis · Pinocytosis – cell drinking (water molecule) Endosmosis Diffusion · When a substance is placed in a hypotonic solution, the solvent molecules move inside the cell and the cell becomes turgid or undergoes The real-life examples of osmosis are: deplasmolysis Feeling thirsty after having salty food. Exosmosis Dialysis of the kidney in the excretory system. · When a substance is placed in a hypertonic Swelling of resins and other seeds when they are solution, the solvent molecules move outside the cell soaked in water. and the cell becomes flaccid or undergoes plasmolysis. Movement of salt-water in the animal cell across our cell membrane. Osmotic Pressure Movement of water and minerals from root nodules · The minimum pressure that stops the osmosis is to various parts of plants. equal to the osmotic pressure of the solution XTRA: Significance of Osmosis · Osmosis influences the transport of nutrients and the release of metabolic waste products. · It is responsible for the absorption of water from the soil and conducting it to the upper parts of the plant through the xylem. · It stabilizes the internal environment of a living organism by maintaining the balance between water and intercellular fluid levels. · It maintains the turgidity of cells. · It is a process by which plants maintain their water content despite the constant water loss due to transpiration. · This process controls the cell to cell diffusion of water. · Osmosis induces cell turgor which regulates the movement of plants and plant parts. · Osmosis also controls the dehiscence of fruits and sporangia. · Higher osmotic pressure protects the plants against drought injury. What is the main function of osmosis? · Osmosis helps in stabilizing the internal environment of the organism by balancing the levels of water and intracellular fluids. · The nutrients and minerals enter the cell by osmosis which is necessary for the survival of cells