CD 305 (1) PDF - Study Guide for Exam 1

Questions: -What is the probability when a patient walks in the door if they have a speech-language disorder -Variable is the number of morphemes per utterance -Semantics vs. Syntax Phomemes and allophones 2 language samples- 1 where the child doesn't know the meaning - 1 where the syntax is wrong-...

Questions: -What is the probability when a patient walks in the door if they have a speech-language disorder -Variable is the number of morphemes per utterance -Semantics vs. Syntax Phomemes and allophones 2 language samples- 1 where the child doesn't know the meaning - 1 where the syntax is wrong- which is emergent? Pidgin Creole Study Guide for Exam 1 (Chapters 1-4 of Born to Talk, 7th Edition) Chapter 1: A Connection of Brains ​ Key Concepts: ○​ Communication: The process of sending and receiving information, ideas, or feelings. ○​ Language: A system of abstract symbols and rules used for communication. ○​ Speech: The oral expression of language involving complex physical processes. ○​ Speech Chain: The series of steps that connect a speaker's thoughts to a listener's understanding. ○​ Receptive Language: Understanding language. ○​ Expressive Language: Producing language (speaking, signing, writing). ○​ Pragmatics: The social rules governing language use. ○​ Semantics: Meaning of words and sentences. ○​ Syntax: Sentence structure. ○​ Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning in language. ​ 13 Design Features of Language (e.g., Arbitrariness, Displacement, Recursion) define unique characteristics of human communication compared to animals. ​ Points to Remember: ○​ Language and speech are parts of the larger communication process. ○​ Humans have a unique ability to use language, unlike animals. ○​ The speech chain involves physical and cognitive steps that connect speakers and listeners. ○​ Human language has both shared and unique features compared to animal communication. Chapter 2: Language Acquisition: A Theoretical Journey  ​ Key Concepts: ○​ Nativist Theory (e.g., Noam Chomsky): Language is an innate ability, and humans have a "language acquisition device" (LAD) in their brains to learn language. ○​ Behaviorist Theory (e.g., B.F. Skinner): Language is learned through environmental input, imitation, and reinforcement. ○​ Interactionist Theory: Language acquisition results from both biological and social factors, and children learn language through interaction. ​ Key Terms: ○​ Wernicke’s Area: Brain region for understanding language. ○​ Broca’s Area: Brain region for speech production. ○​ Mirror Neurons: Neurons that help us learn by imitating others. ○​ Plasticity: The brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize as it learns language. ○​ Operant Conditioning: Learning through reinforcement and punishment. ○​ Linguistic Universals: Common language features found across all languages. ​ Points to Remember: ○​ Theories about language acquisition address the nature vs. nurture debate. ○​ Nativists argue language is innate (Chomsky's theory), while Behaviorists stress the role of environment and learning (Skinner's theory). ○​ Interactionists believe that both biology and social interaction are essential for language learning. ○​ Key Theorists: ​ Chomsky: Language is innate, with an LAD in the brain. ​ Skinner: Language is learned through environmental interactions (imitation and reinforcement). ​ Bruner: Social interaction is key to language development (Language Acquisition Support System). ​ Interactionist Theories: ○​ Focus on how language structure and meaning are shaped by social interactions and experiences. ○​ Pragmatics (social use of language) is a key part of language learning. ​ Cognitive and Social Interactionist Views: ○​ Cognitive theories (e.g., Piaget) argue language develops through cognitive development. ○​ Social Interactionists stress the importance of social context and caregiver interactions (e.g., Motherese or Parentese). Summary of Key Points: 1.​ Communication is the larger process, while speech and language are separate but related components.  2.​ Nativists believe language is innate, behaviorists see it as learned through reinforcement, and interactionists argue it’s a combination of both. 3.​ The speech chain connects a speaker’s thoughts to a listener’s understanding through a series of steps. 4.​ Pragmatics is crucial in understanding how language is used in social contexts. Chapter 3: Cognitive Development - Building a Foundation for Language This chapter discusses how intellectual (cognitive) development and language development are closely related. Language is a way for people to express their thoughts, and how children develop the ability to think and use language is a key topic here. Various theories about the connection between cognition and language are explored, including the role of perception and mental processes in learning. Learning Outcomes ​ Understand key concepts from Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, such as object permanence, causality, imitation, and communication. ​ Explain Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development and compare it to Piaget’s. ​ Understand how perception and executive functioning influence knowledge and language learning. ​ Learn about the roles of attention, memory, and theory of mind in language development. Key Terms and Concepts ​ Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory: Recognizes that people have different kinds of intelligences (e.g., linguistic, logical, musical). ​ Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages: 1.​ Sensorimotor (birth-2 years) 2.​ Preoperational (2-7 years) 3.​ Concrete Operational (7-11 years) 4.​ Formal Operational (11+ years) ​ Key Cognitive Concepts: Schema, assimilation, accommodation, object permanence, causality, means/ends, imitation, play, and communication. Key Ideas 1.​ Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Children learn in different ways, and this theory has influenced education by recognizing the diversity in learning styles. 2.​ Piaget’s Views on Cognitive Development: ○​ Children’s cognitive abilities develop in stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Each stage builds on the previous one.  ○​ Concepts like schema (mental structures), assimilation (fitting new information into existing schemas), and accommodation (changing schemas to fit new information) are central to how children develop thinking. 3.​ Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Children’s cognitive abilities during this stage prepare them for speech and language development. Perception plays a big role in cognition—children start to relate to things they can’t see or touch directly, and learn to represent things with words. ○​ Object permanence: Understanding that objects exist even when they can't be seen. ○​ Causality: Understanding cause and effect. ○​ Imitation: Copying others, which is important for language learning. 4.​ Vygotsky’s Theory: Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is influenced more by the child’s social environment. He emphasized the role of language in cognitive development and introduced concepts like: ○​ Private speech: When children talk to themselves to guide their actions. ○​ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help. ○​ Scaffolding: The support provided by adults to help children learn. 5.​ Dynamic Systems Theory: This theory emphasizes that each child’s development is unique, influenced by their environment and previous experiences. The interactions between a child and their environment shape their cognitive and language development. 6.​ Perception’s Role in Cognitive Development: Perception refers to how children interpret sensory information. Visual and auditory information are crucial in helping children bond with caregivers and develop language. For example, babies are particularly interested in the human voice and faces, which aids language development. 7.​ Executive Functions: These are mental processes like attention, memory, and control that allow children to focus, make decisions, and learn. Good executive functioning is important for language and academic skills. Research shows that bilingual children often have stronger executive functions, such as better attention control. 8.​ Bilingualism and Cognitive Development: ○​ Some theories suggest that learning two languages might reduce cognitive competence (limited capacity hypothesis), while others believe children can learn two languages without any issues. ○​ The environment in which a child learns languages (e.g., additive bilingual environment vs. subtractive bilingual environment) can affect cognitive development and language proficiency. Key Points to Remember ​ Cognitive development is essential for language learning, and children’s thinking abilities evolve in stages. ​ Piaget believed children build knowledge through interaction with their environment, while Vygotsky emphasized social learning.  ​ Perception, attention, memory, and executive functions are all interconnected with language development. ​ Bilingual children may have certain cognitive advantages, though early exposure to multiple languages can be complex. Chapter 4: Communication Development from Birth to 2 Years From birth, a child is a communicator, and their communication abilities evolve rapidly during the first two years. They start with crying and, by age two, are already speaking. This chapter uses a stage-based approach to discuss language development, focusing on both speech and comprehension. Learning Outcomes: ​ Understand the social and cultural factors that influence language learning. ​ Describe how parents create a supportive communication environment for infants. ​ Explain the communication strategies parents use with young children. ​ Assess the importance of linguistic input for language development. ​ Trace the child’s progress in understanding and producing language. ​ Explore the emergence of first words and how they are used. ​ Discuss how early word combinations develop. Key Terms: ​ Socioeconomic factors: These include race, social class, education, occupation, and region, all influencing language development. ​ Parentese: A special way of speaking to infants that helps them learn language. ​ Contingent responding: Caregivers’ responses to infants' signals, which help develop communication. ​ Joint reference: Shared focus between a caregiver and child on an object or event, crucial for language learning. ​ Phonotactic rules: Rules for permissible sound combinations in a language. ​ Fast mapping: The process by which children learn the meanings of words after just a few exposures. Key Points: 1.​ Home Environment’s Role: The home environment significantly impacts language development, starting even before birth. Infants' communication abilities develop quickly in their first two years. 2.​ Language and Culture: The language a child learns and the variation in that language depend on the environment, not biology. 3.​ Socioeconomic Status (SES): Children’s language development is influenced by factors like family income, parental education, and occupation. Children from low-income households may face disadvantages, including fewer opportunities for optimal development.  4.​ Pre-birth Communication: Babies begin processing information before birth, responding to sounds and patterns in the womb. 5.​ Infant-directed Speech: Caregivers use higher-pitched, slower, and exaggerated speech, which is universal and aids language learning. This "parentese" is found in all cultures and helps babies learn language. 6.​ Contingent Responding: Babies respond to their caregivers’ communications through gestures or sounds. Caregivers’ responses to these behaviors promote language development. 7.​ Joint Attention: Babies learn language best when they focus on the same object or event as a caregiver, which is known as joint reference. 8.​ Importance of Interaction: Babies learn language through active interaction with caregivers. Simply hearing language isn’t enough; real communication through conversations fosters language development. 9.​ Early Speech Acts: Babies start with reflexive cries and move to intentional communication. They use gestures, pointing, and single words to express needs and thoughts. 10.​First Words: At around one year, babies start using their first words, typically referring to people, objects, or actions. Early words often cover a wide range of meanings and can be over-extended or under-extended. 11.​Syntax Development: By age two, toddlers start combining words into simple sentences. These early combinations show the child’s understanding of grammar. 12.​The Role of Imitation: Imitation helps children learn new words and actions. Pointing and other gestures show early communicative intent. 13.​Learning through Stories: Reading and sharing stories helps children develop listening and narrative skills, which will aid in more complex language use as they grow. 14.​Language Input: Quantity and quality of language input are crucial. Studies show that children exposed to more language from their caregivers tend to have better language skills. 15.​Cultural Influences: Socialization practices, including the use of multiple languages in the home, affect how children develop language skills. 16.​Fast Mapping and Word Learning: As children hear new words, they quickly learn their meanings through context and exposure. 17.​Early Vocalizations: Babies go through stages of vocalization, from crying and cooing to babbling and eventually using protowords (sounds that stand for specific objects or events). 18.​Intentional Communication: As babies develop, they move from reflexive actions to intentional communication, using gestures and words to express needs and ideas. 19.​Two-word Combinations: Around age two, children start combining two words, creating simple sentences with basic meanings. This marks the beginning of syntax, or grammar. 20.​Syntactic Development: By the age of two, toddlers begin using basic grammar rules to combine words into meaningful phrases. Study Guide for Exam 2: Chapters 5-8 Chapter 5: Children Learning Language – Participating in Language Samples Key Points: 1.​ Purposes of Sampling Language: ○​ Document abilities: Record a child’s skills at a specific time and compare to peers. ○​ Track progress: Show changes over time, especially after interventions. ○​ Research: Help identify children for language studies. 2.​ Reliability: Ensure the sample accurately represents the child's language abilities. 3.​ Validity: The sample should provide a full picture of the child's language skills. 4.​ Minimum Sample Size: At least 50-100 utterances, but 75-100 usable ones are ideal. Aim for 100-150 utterances initially. ○​ Avoid sections that are unintelligible, repetitive, or include rote language. ○​ Avoid asking too many questions. 5.​ Preparation: ○​ Spend time with the child before collecting the sample. ○​ Talk to parents about the child’s interests and bring relevant materials. ○​ Move between settings to observe natural interactions. 6.​ Engagement: Use questions or statements that encourage conversation. 7.​ Practice: Practice collecting language samples with children before conducting the actual analysis. 8.​ Recording: Audio or video record the session for accurate transcription and analysis. 9.​ Transcription: Transcribe the language sample accurately for later analysis. The person who collected the sample should ideally do the transcription. ○​ Glossing: Sometimes, clinicians repeat the child’s utterances to ensure clarity. 10.​Analysis Purpose: The goal is to understand a child’s use of language, focusing on grammar, meaning, and social function. 11.​Grammatical Analysis: ​ Identify and count morphemes (smallest units of meaning). ​ Use Table 5.1 (p. 187) to identify 14 key grammatical morphemes. ​ Use rules in Figure 5.2 (p. 188) to count morphemes accurately. ​ Calculate Mean Length of Utterance (MLU): Average number of morphemes per utterance, used to assess language development. 12.​Semantic Analysis: ​ Understand what the child is trying to express. ​ Use Type-Token Ratio to measure word diversity: number of different words divided by total words. Typical ratio is around 0.50 in early childhood. 13.​Pragmatic Analysis: ​ Evaluate whether the child’s language is socially appropriate and functional in context. ​ Refer to Figure 5.3 (p. 190) for pragmatic functions. Use Figure 5.5 (p. 194) to check for specific pragmatic skills in the child’s environment. Key Concepts & Terms: ​ Modulations of Meaning: Changes in the way meaning is conveyed in simple sentences by adding grammatical morphemes. ​ Grammatical Morphemes: Small units of meaning that are added to words to change their tense, number, possession, etc. Examples include inflections like plurals, possessives, and past tense markers. ​ Inflection: Modifying a word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, mood, or number. ​ Pronouns: Words used in place of nouns (e.g., he, she, it). Key subcategories include: ○​ Subjective Pronouns (I, you, he) ○​ Objective Pronouns (me, him, her) ○​ Possessive Pronouns (my, your, his, hers) ​ Copula and Auxiliary Verbs: Verbs like "is" (copula) and "do" (auxiliary) used to modify other verbs or indicate actions. ​ Overgeneralization/Overextension: The tendency of children to apply grammatical rules more broadly than appropriate, such as saying "goed" instead of "went." ​ Negation: The process of expressing "no" or negating an action, which develops progressively across the preschool years. ​ Modality and Deixis: Modality relates to verbs indicating possibility or necessity (like "can," "should"), while deixis refers to words whose meaning depends on context (like "here" or "there"). ​ Narratives: The development of stories, which starts with simple recounts and evolves into more complex narratives involving logical sequences. ​ Metalinguistics: The ability to reflect on and manipulate the components of language, such as phonological awareness and print interest. ​ Bilingualism: The ability to use two languages, with different forms like simultaneous (both languages learned from birth) and successive (one language learned after the first). Points of Emphasis: 1.​ Early Language Development: ○​ Language development in preschool children elaborates on earlier abilities. ○​ Grammatical morphemes emerge and develop in stages. 2.​ Stages of Language Development: ○​ Stage 2 (27-30 months): The child begins to use grammatical morphemes and modulations of meaning. MLU (Mean Length of Utterance) ranges from 2.0 to 2.5 morphemes. ○​ Stage 3 (31-34 months): The child’s MLU increases to 2.5 to 3.0, and grammatical structures become more refined, including the use of auxiliary verbs (e.g., "do," "have"). 3.​ Pronouns and Verb Use: ○​ Children progress from simple pronouns (I, it) to possessive (my, mine) and reflexive forms (myself, yourself). ○​ Children also begin to use auxiliary verbs and copula verbs by stage 2. 4.​ Syntax and Sentence Structure: ○​ Stage 2: The child uses noun phrases (e.g., "the big dog") and verb phrases (e.g., "is going"). ○​ Stage 3: The child begins using subordinate clauses, though this is more advanced and develops in later stages. ○​ Stage 4-5: Clausal conjoining and embedding phrases occur, leading to more complex sentence structures. 5.​ Negation and Interrogatives: ○​ Early forms of negation emerge by late stage 1 or early stage 2. The child learns to negate actions ("no kick that," "I no like that") and refines this in later stages. ○​ Questions, including wh-questions (who, what, where), begin to emerge in Stage 2 and continue to develop in Stage 3. 6.​ Conversations and Pragmatics: ○​ Topic Collaboration and conversational repair strategies emerge, improving as children transition from Stage 2 to Stage 3. ○​ By Stage 4, children are better able to maintain a topic in conversations and show some understanding of politeness and presupposition. 7.​ Narrative Development: ○​ In Stage 2, children begin to engage in simple recounts and heaps (unrelated statements about experiences). ○​ By Stage 3-4, children develop more coherent narratives with causal and temporal relations, such as logical sequences. 8.​ Metalinguistic Awareness: ○​ Imitation plays a crucial role in language development between 27 and 36 months. ○​ Print-concept knowledge and alphabetic knowledge emerge as the child begins interacting with written language. 9.​ Bilingualism: ○​ Simultaneous bilingualism occurs when a child is exposed to two languages from birth, and sequential bilingualism happens when one language is acquired first. ○​ Children may experience code mixing, where they blend elements of both languages in conversation. ○​ The unitary language system hypothesis suggests that bilingual children initially form a hybrid language system, while the dual language system hypothesis posits that they use two separate systems from the start. 10.​Cognitive and Language Interaction: ​ Cognitive understanding influences language development, especially in areas like the understanding of temporal relations and causal relations.  ​ Full understanding of figurative language and more complex syntax emerges later in development. Stages in Language Development: ​ Stage 2 (27-30 months): The child’s vocabulary and grammar grow rapidly, with an MLU between 2.0 to 2.5. Grammatical morphemes, basic negation, and early pronouns emerge. ​ Stage 3 (31-34 months): The MLU increases to 2.5-3.0, and auxiliary verbs, more complex negation, and wh-questions appear. ​ Stage 4 (35-40 months): The child uses more complex sentence structures and begins embedding clauses. MLU ranges from 3.0 to 3.75. ​ Stage 5 (3.5-4 years): The child’s language skills are more sophisticated, including accurate use of auxiliary verbs, negation, and a broader vocabulary. MLU ranges from 3.75 to 4.5. Bilingual Development: ​ Simultaneous bilingualism: Children learn both languages at the same time, typically reaching developmental milestones similar to those of monolingual children. ​ Successive bilingualism: Children acquire one language first and then a second language, often with some influence from the first language (transfer). ​ The Dual Language System Hypothesis is more widely accepted, suggesting that bilingual children keep separate linguistic systems for each language. Chapter 7: Taking Language from Home to School Key Terms & Concepts: ​ Teacher Preparation for Diverse Students: Awareness, knowledge, and skills needed for teaching culturally diverse students. ​ Multicultural Education: Teaching that values all cultural backgrounds. ​ Antibiased Curriculum: A curriculum that avoids bias. ​ Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum: ○​ Contributions approach: Focuses on cultural contributions. ○​ Additive approach: Adds cultural elements to the existing curriculum. ○​ Transformation approach: Changes the curriculum to reflect diverse perspectives. ○​ Social action approach: Encourages students to take action on social issues. ​ Language of Academic Subjects: The specific vocabulary and ways of talking used in school subjects.  ​ Teacher-Student Dialogue: Different ways teachers engage with students (e.g., IRE model: Initiate, Respond, Evaluate). ​ Vocabulary Acquisition: Strategies to help students learn new words (e.g., using context, adult models, and understanding word structures). ​ Phonological Awareness and Spelling: Understanding sounds in language and stages of learning to spell. ​ Story Grammar: How stories are structured, including event sequences and different types of narratives. Key Points: 1.​ Language Development: A child’s speech reflects the language models they are exposed to at home. 2.​ School Language vs. Home Language: The language used at school is very different from that at home. School focuses on academic language and social skills. ○​ School helps students learn the attitudes, values, and knowledge of society. 3.​ Language Learning Challenges for ESL Students: ○​ Students learning English as a second language face challenges both in learning English and academic content. ○​ It can take up to seven years for ESL students to become proficient enough in English to succeed academically. ○​ ESL students may also face difficulties with literacy, especially those who start school later. 4.​ Diverse Teaching Needs: ○​ Many teachers (especially white female teachers) face challenges teaching culturally diverse classrooms because their personal experiences may differ from those of their students. ○​ Programs to prepare teachers for diverse classrooms should focus on increasing awareness, knowledge, and skills. 5.​ Multicultural Curriculum Approaches: ○​ Multicultural education aims to ensure all students, regardless of background, experience equality in the classroom. ○​ Teachers should be careful about biases in textbooks, such as invisibility, stereotyping, and language bias. ○​ Teachers should help students embrace cultural differences, rather than reject unfamiliar ideas. 6.​ New Forms of Language in School: ○​ Academic Language: Includes vocabulary and academic questions. Students may struggle if they have not encountered this language at home or have different dialects. ○​ Behavior Management Language: Refers to the rules and expectations for behavior in school. ○​ Personal Identity Language: Involves how children express and understand their own identity in school. 7.​ Teacher-Student Interaction in Classrooms:  ○​ The typical classroom dialogue is the IRE model (Initiate, Respond, Evaluate). This form of communication is often not explicitly explained to students but is an important part of their academic learning. Key Concepts and Terms: 1.​ Teacher Preparation for Culturally Diverse Student Bodies: ○​ Teacher preparation programs should address awareness, knowledge, and skills to meet the needs of diverse students. ○​ Multicultural education aims to ensure equality regardless of gender, race, culture, social class, or exceptionality. 2.​ Language of School vs. Home: ○​ Language at school differs significantly from home language environments. ○​ Children entering school face new language demands, such as academic language, behavior management language, and the language of personal identity. 3.​ Multicultural Approaches in Curriculum: ○​ Schools should use antibiased curriculum strategies to avoid stereotypes and promote equality, including approaches like: ​ Contributions approach (showing positive cultural contributions) ​ Additive approach (adding cultural content) ​ Transformation approach (changing how knowledge is presented) ​ Social action approach (encouraging students to take action based on learning). 4.​ Types of Teacher-Student Dialogues: ○​ IRE Model (Initiation, Response, Evaluation) for structured teacher-student interactions. ○​ Revoicing (facilitating peer-to-peer interactions with teacher involvement) and Instructional Conversations (focused, flexible group dialogues) are also useful. 5.​ Language of Behavior Management: ○​ Language used in behavior management is often part of the hidden curriculum that governs classroom expectations and control. 6.​ Vocabulary Development: ○​ Children’s vocabulary grows in parallel with cognitive development, especially as they transition from concrete to more abstract thinking. ○​ Horizontal and vertical expansion of vocabulary occur through social interaction, contextual clues, and exposure to different forms of language. ○​ Chunking (organizing words by semantic features) and the syntagmatic-paradigmatic shift (moving from syntactic to semantic understanding of words) help with vocabulary expansion. 7.​ Figurative Language and Humor: ○​ Idioms, irony, and proverbs are forms of figurative language that develop slowly. Understanding irony and humor is a gradual process. 8.​ Complex Syntax Development:  ○​ As children grow, they produce more complex sentences by conjoining and embedding clauses. They also begin to understand the underlying cognitive concepts (e.g., causal or conditional relationships) required to form complex sentences. ○​ Children expand their noun and verb phrases and improve their use of pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs over time. 9.​ Pragmatic Awareness: ○​ Children become more adept at using language for social functions, such as maintaining conversations, repairing misunderstandings, and making indirect requests. ○​ Pragmatic skills evolve with age, with children becoming more sensitive to relevance, politeness, and conversational repair. 10.​Reading and Writing Development: ​ Reading and writing are intertwined. Phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension all contribute to literacy development. ​ Early stages of writing evolve from invented spellings to more conventional forms through phases such as prephonemic, early phonemic, letter-name, and transitional stages. 11.​Metalinguistic Awareness: ​ The development of metalinguistic awareness, or the ability to reflect on and understand language structures, increases dramatically between ages 5 and 8. 12.​Cultural Narratives and Storytelling: ​ Children’s ability to tell stories evolves from basic event sequences to more sophisticated narratives with clear causal relationships and complete story structures. ​ Cultural differences influence the style and complexity of narratives (e.g., topic-based vs. topic-associating narratives). 13.​Gender and Language: ​ Genderlects (gendered language differences) develop early and are influenced by both caregivers and peers. There are distinct communication patterns between boys and girls, which become more prominent with age. Important Developmental Milestones: ​ Early Childhood (3-6 years): ○​ Expansion of vocabulary through adult models, contextual cues, and morphological knowledge. ○​ Understanding basic sentence structures, and early narrative development (primitive narratives, event sequences). ​ School Years (6-12 years): ○​ Mastery of complex syntax (passive sentences, conjunctions, embedding). ○​ Growth in pragmatic awareness (e.g., conversational repair, indirect requests). ○​ Increased narrative complexity and the use of story grammar.  ○​ Phonological and metalinguistic awareness grow, with increasing understanding of how words and language work. ​ Adolescence: ○​ Full comprehension and use of complex figurative language (proverbs, irony, idioms). ○​ Refinement in understanding of indirect requests, tone, and politeness. ○​ Continued development of writing as a formal skill, moving beyond handwriting to real writing. Key Takeaways for Educators: ​ Be mindful of the hidden curriculum and underground curriculum — children may need explicit instruction in language forms they have not been exposed to at home. ​ Use culturally responsive teaching methods to ensure multicultural education and avoid biases in instructional materials. ​ Develop language skills in all areas: academic language, pragmatics, and figurative language. ​ Support vocabulary growth through strategies like chunking, semantic categorization, and encouraging phonological awareness. ​ Foster writing skills by focusing on real writing, not just handwriting, and encourage self-regulated writing as children grow. Chapter 8 focuses on the development of speech sounds and the cultural variations in speech and language production. Below is a breakdown of the key terms, concepts, and points of emphasis: Key Terms and Concepts: 1.​ Phoneme - The smallest unit of sound in speech that can change the meaning of a word (e.g., /p/ in "pat" vs. /b/ in "bat"). 2.​ Phonology - The study of speech sounds and the rules that govern how sounds can be sequenced into words. 3.​ Aspiration - A non-distinctive feature in which a puff of air is released when certain consonants (like /p/, /t/, /k/) are produced. 4.​ Allophone - Variations of a phoneme that do not affect the meaning of a word (e.g., the "t" sound in "top" vs. "stop"). 5.​ International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) - A standardized system of symbols used to represent the sounds of speech. 6.​ Place of articulation - The location in the vocal tract where airflow is constricted or blocked to produce a particular consonant sound (e.g., /p/ is bilabial, produced with both lips).  7.​ Manner of articulation - The type of constriction made by the speech organs to produce a sound (e.g., stops, fricatives). 8.​ Voicing - Whether the vocal cords vibrate during the production of a sound (e.g., /s/ is voiceless, while /z/ is voiced). 9.​ Consonant Clusters - Combinations of two or more consonants within a syllable (e.g., "st" in "stop"). 10.​Intelligibility - The degree to which a listener can understand a speaker's speech, which improves with age and mastery of phonemes. Key Developmental Stages and Theories: 1.​ Infant Vocalization: ○​ At birth, infants produce quasi-resonant nuclei, early sounds that are muffled and low-pitched. ○​ As the infant ages, their vocalizations transition into fully resonant nuclei with greater range and frequency (2-4 months). ○​ Marginal babbling (5-6 months) is characterized by repetitive consonant-vowel combinations (e.g., "ba-ba"). ○​ Babbling drift theory suggests that caregivers shape the infant's phonological system, while discontinuity theory proposes that babbling and true speech development are distinct processes. 2.​ First Words: ○​ Around the first year, children begin to use whole-word templates, or simplified versions of words (e.g., "baba" for "bottle"). ○​ Customary production refers to sounds that a child uses in at least two word positions, and mastery is when 90% of children use a sound correctly at a given age. 3.​ Phonological Processes: ○​ Syllable structure processes involve simplifying syllables (e.g., "cabbage" → "cabb"). ○​ Substitution processes replace sounds (e.g., "ship" → "sip"). ○​ Assimilation processes involve sounds influencing each other (e.g., "dog" → "gog"). ○​ Vowel processes impact the pronunciation of vowels. Theories of Phonological Acquisition: 1.​ Generative Phonology - A theory that suggests children develop mental rules about phoneme combinations to form larger speech units. 2.​ Phonological Processes - Simplifications children make in speech when they haven't yet mastered all phonemes, like reducing syllable complexity or substituting sounds.  3.​ Coarticulation - The overlapping of speech sounds in fluent speech; it can be retentive (when earlier sounds affect later ones) or anticipatory (when later sounds affect earlier ones). Dialects and Cultural Variations in Language: 1.​ Dialects - Variations in language based on geography, social class, or culture. These include regional dialects (based on geographic areas) and social/cultural dialects (based on social or cultural groups). ○​ Standard dialect refers to the dialect of a higher socio-economic or political group (e.g., Standard American English), while vernacular dialect refers to non-standard forms of a language. 2.​ African American English (AAE): ○​ The creolist theory suggests AAE developed from a blend of African languages and European languages, including Portuguese and English. ○​ Pidgin is a simplified language that develops when speakers of different languages need to communicate. Over time, if it becomes more structured, it becomes a Creole. ○​ Decreolization refers to the process in which Creole languages evolve and start resembling the dominant language. ○​ AAE has distinct grammatical rules, including negation forms and the use of aspect (e.g., "She be working" to indicate habitual action). 3.​ Hispanic English (HE): ○​ HE results from the interaction between Spanish and English speakers. Differences between Spanish and English include phoneme inventories (Spanish has fewer consonants and vowels). ○​ Common grammatical features of HE include the omission of auxiliary verbs and articles, and variations in word order. 4.​ Asian English (AE): ○​ AE refers to the variety of English spoken by people from various Asian countries, each with its own linguistic influences (e.g., Chinese, Korean, Japanese). ○​ These variations affect pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. 5.​ Native American English (NAE): ○​ NAE reflects the influence of indigenous languages on English usage, particularly in phonology and syntax. Given the diversity among Native American languages, there are many variations in NAE. Regional Dialects in the U.S.:  1.​ New England/Northeast - The dialect in this region is influenced by historical patterns, including distinct pronunciation of the "r" sound. 2.​ Northern/Midwest - These dialects show fewer influences from other languages, with notable regional variations in vocabulary and pronunciation. 3.​ Southern - The South has a variety of dialects, influenced by historical factors like French in Louisiana and African influences in certain areas. Speech and Language Disorders in Children (Study Guide - Part III) This section focuses on understanding speech and language disorders, including their prevalence, causes, types, and their effects on children and adults. Communication disorders are more common than many people realize, affecting about 10% of the population. These disorders can range from mild to severe and have a far-reaching impact on individuals' lives. Learning Outcomes 1.​ Differentiate Between Normal and Disordered Speech and Language: ○​ Normal speech and language development is characterized by age-appropriate acquisition of speech sounds, grammar, vocabulary, and conversational skills. ○​ Disordered speech and language refer to significant delays or difficulties in any of these areas, which can affect communication, learning, and social interaction. 2.​ Contrast the Interrelationships of Speech and Language and Their Impact on Learning: ○​ Speech and language are closely intertwined, and delays in one area often affect the other. For example, speech sound disorders may impact reading and writing skills. ○​ Disordered language can also impair social interactions, comprehension, and academic success. 3.​ Describe the Causes, Contributing Factors, and Types of Communication Disorders: ○​ Communication disorders can arise from a variety of causes, including genetic factors, environmental influences, neurological conditions, hearing loss, or developmental delays. 4.​ Discuss the Characteristics of Several Speech Disorders: ○​ Different types of speech disorders, including articulation issues, voice disorders, fluency disorders (e.g., stuttering), and language disorders, have distinct characteristics and causes. Key Terms and Concepts  ​ Prevalence (p. 364): The proportion of individuals within a population who have a particular condition at a given time. In speech and language disorders, this refers to the percentage of people who have a communication issue at any given time. ​ Incidence (p. 364): The rate of new cases of a disorder within a given period. Definitions of Speech Disorders (p. 366-367): ​ Functional Disorder (p. 373): A speech or language disorder with no known anatomical or physiological cause. These disorders occur without a clear underlying physical problem. ​ Organic Disorder (p. 373): A speech or language disorder with a known physiological or anatomical cause, such as brain injury, hearing loss, or structural abnormalities. Types of Hearing Loss (p. 374): ​ Conductive Hearing Loss: Results from issues in the outer or middle ear that prevent sound from reaching the inner ear. This type of hearing loss is often treatable. ​ Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve. This type of hearing loss is typically permanent. ​ Mixed Hearing Loss: A combination of both conductive and sensorineural hearing loss. Vision and Disabilities: ​ Low Vision (p. 376): Vision impairment that cannot be corrected with standard glasses or lenses but may still allow some level of sight. ​ Legally Blind (p. 376): A condition where vision is severely impaired (usually defined as 20/200 vision or worse in the better eye, with correction). Developmental and Intellectual Disabilities: ​ Developmental Disability (p. 377): A broad category that includes conditions such as intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, and other developmental delays. ​ Intellectual Disability (p. 377): A condition characterized by limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, which affect learning and functioning in everyday life. ​ Autism Spectrum Disorder (p. 379): A developmental disorder that affects communication, social interaction, and behavior, with symptoms that can range from mild to severe. Brain Injury and Learning Disabilities: ​ Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) (p. 381): Injury to the brain caused by external forces, leading to cognitive, speech, and motor impairments. ​ Cerebrovascular Accident (Stroke) (p. 382): A disruption in the blood flow to the brain, which can lead to speech and language difficulties.  ​ Learning Disability (p. 382): A neurological disorder that affects the brain's ability to process information, often leading to difficulties with reading, writing, or mathematics. ​ Dyslexia (p. 383): A specific learning disability that involves difficulty in reading, despite normal intelligence. ​ Specific Language Impairment (p. 383): A condition where a child has language difficulties without other cognitive, sensory, or motor impairments. Speech Disorders: ​ Phonological Disorder (p. 384): Difficulty with the sound system of a language, including the ability to correctly produce or organize speech sounds. ​ Articulation Disorder (p. 385): Difficulty producing speech sounds correctly, leading to mispronunciations. Voice Disorders: ​ Muscle Tension Dysphonia (p. 385): A voice disorder caused by excessive tension in the muscles that control speech production. ​ Psychogenic Voice Disorders (p. 386): Voice disorders caused by psychological factors, such as stress or emotional trauma. ​ Organic Conditions (p. 386): Physical conditions, such as vocal cord paralysis, that affect the voice. ​ Neurogenic Voice Disorders (p. 386): Voice disorders caused by neurological conditions that affect the brain or nervous system. Fluency Disorders: ​ Stuttering (p. 386): A speech disorder characterized by disruptions in the flow of speech, such as repetitions, prolongations, or blocks. ​ Developmental Stuttering (p. 387): Stuttering that occurs during childhood and often resolves or improves over time. ​ Spontaneous Recovery of Stuttering (p. 388): The phenomenon where some children outgrow stuttering without intervention. ​ Secondary Symptoms (p. 388): Physical manifestations that often accompany stuttering, such as eye blinking, head jerking, or body movements. ​ Neurogenic Stuttering (p. 388): Stuttering caused by neurological damage or disorders affecting the brain. ​ Psychogenic Stuttering (p. 388): Stuttering that arises due to psychological or emotional factors, rather than physical or neurological causes. Important Considerations ​ Impact on Learning: Speech and language disorders can significantly affect academic achievement, as children may struggle with reading, writing, and understanding classroom instruction. ​ Early Identification: The earlier a speech or language disorder is identified, the more effective the intervention can be. Early speech therapy and support are critical to improving long-term outcomes. ​ Multifactorial Causes: Many speech and language disorders are caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurological factors. ​ Treatment Approaches: Intervention for speech and language disorders can involve speech therapy, medical treatment (e.g., hearing aids, surgery), educational support, and psychological counseling, depending on the nature and severity of the disorder. Points of Emphasis - Speech and Language Disorders in Children 1. Importance of Communication Skills: ​ In today’s society, effective communication is more essential than ever. It is critical in almost all aspects of life: academic success, personal relationships, and professional development. 2. Challenges of Communication Disorders: ​ Speech, language, and hearing disorders present significant challenges not only for those affected but also for their families, communities, and society at large. These disorders impact an individual’s ability to interact, learn, and function in daily life. 3. Prevalence and Incidence of Communication Disorders: ​ Communication disorders affect 5-10% of the population in the U.S., making them one of the most common disabilities. ​ Prevalence refers to the number of people who currently have a disorder in a given population. ​ Incidence refers to the total number of people who will experience a disorder at some point in their lives, including those who have had, currently have, or will develop the disorder. 4. Multifactorial Causes: ​ In most cases, the causes of communication disorders are complex and involve a combination of genetic, neurological, environmental, and developmental factors. It’s often difficult to pinpoint a single cause. 5. World Health Organization's Classification System (ICF):  ​ The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) system helps practitioners assess disabilities and their impacts across different life domains, including physical functioning, social participation, and quality of life. 6. Definition of Disordered Speech: ​ Van Riper and Erickson (1996) define disordered speech as having three core characteristics: ○​ Conspicuous: The speech abnormality is noticeable. ○​ Unintelligible: Speech is difficult to understand. ○​ Unpleasant: The speech is perceived as unpleasant or uncomfortable to listen to. 7. Functional vs. Organic Disorders: ​ Functional Disorders: No identifiable physical or structural cause is found after thorough diagnostic tests. ​ Organic Disorders: There is a clear and identifiable physiological or anatomical cause, such as a neurological disorder, hearing loss, or physical injury. 8. Environmental Factors Influencing Communication Disorders: ​ Prenatal factors (e.g., maternal drug use, infections). ​ Prematurity and low birth weight. ​ Hypoxic/anoxic events (lack of oxygen during birth). ​ Neglect, abuse, and lack of social interaction can all contribute to the development of communication disorders. 9. Types of Hearing Loss: ​ Conductive Hearing Loss: Problems in the outer or middle ear that prevent sound from reaching the inner ear (often treatable). ​ Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve, often permanent. ​ Mixed Hearing Loss: A combination of both conductive and sensorineural hearing loss. ​ Critical Factors for Outcomes: Early detection, the age at which the hearing loss is identified, and the type of hearing loss all affect the individual’s speech and language development. 10. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): ​ DSM-5 Criteria: 1.​ Social communication deficits (expressive and/or receptive). 2.​ Restricted or repetitive patterns of behavior. 3.​ Symptoms begin in early childhood. 4.​ Significant impairment in social functioning.  5.​ Symptoms are not explained by other developmental disorders. ​ Prevalence: ASD affects about 1 in 36 children in the U.S., with boys being more likely to be diagnosed than girls. ​ Key Features: Atypical sensory processing, repetitive behaviors, and language delays. ​ Prognosis: Children who do not speak by age 5 generally have a poorer prognosis. The cause is thought to be genetic (polygenic). ​ Diverse Symptoms: The language difficulties in children with autism are highly variable, as autism is a spectrum disorder. 11. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): ​ Causes: Concussions, falls, vehicular accidents, domestic violence, and physical abuse. ​ Impact: TBI can affect cognition, sensory processing, communication, and academic learning. ​ Outcomes: The severity and location of the brain injury, age, and rehabilitation efforts play key roles in the outcome. ​ Recovery: Some individuals may recover fully, while others may experience persistent issues that can last for weeks, months, or even permanently. 12. Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) / Stroke: ​ Children vs. Adults: Children typically recover better than adults after a stroke, though recovery still depends on many factors such as the age of the child and the location and severity of the injury. ​ Speech and Language Effects: Stroke can lead to speech and language deficits depending on the part of the brain affected. Early intervention is critical for improving outcomes. 13. Learning Disabilities: ​ Definition: A general term for difficulties in acquiring spoken language, written language, or mathematical skills. These are not due to intellectual disabilities, emotional disorders, or environmental factors like cultural influences or inadequate teaching. ​ Common Types: ○​ Dyslexia: Specific difficulties with reading and decoding written language. ○​ Dyscalculia: Difficulty with mathematical concepts and skills. ○​ Dysgraphia: Challenges with handwriting and written expression. ​ Key Characteristics: A learning disability is not related to overall intelligence but can significantly affect academic performance and daily functioning. Summary of Key Takeaways:  1.​ Communication disorders are highly prevalent, affecting up to 10% of the population, and they can have a significant impact on individuals and society. 2.​ Environmental and genetic factors often interact to cause speech and language disorders, and early intervention is crucial. 3.​ The WHO’s ICF system offers a holistic approach to assessing disabilities and their impact on various life areas. 4.​ Speech and language disorders can arise from functional or organic causes, and it’s important to differentiate between the two for effective treatment. 5.​ Hearing loss, autism spectrum disorder, traumatic brain injury, and learning disabilities are common contributors to communication difficulties. 6.​ The early identification of disorders like hearing loss, autism, or traumatic brain injury improves the prognosis and helps in implementing appropriate interventions. 7.​ Learning disabilities should be recognized early, as they are not related to intelligence but can severely affect academic and social development if untreated. By understanding these points, educators, parents, and healthcare professionals can work together to support children with speech, language, and hearing disorders, promoting better outcomes for them in all aspects of life. 4o mini ChatGPT can make mistakes. Check important info. Points of Emphasis - Continued: Speech and Language Disorders in Children 15. Dyslexia Definition:​ Dyslexia is a brain-based learning disability that primarily affects reading, making it difficult for children to decode written words. This disorder often co-occurs with ADHD. Epidemiology:​ Dyslexia affects about 15% of the population, making it one of the most common learning disabilities. Key Features: ​ Difficulty with phonological decoding: Children with dyslexia struggle to connect sounds to written symbols. ​ Slow reading speed: Children with dyslexia may read at a slower pace than their peers. ​ Co-morbidities: Dyslexia often occurs alongside other conditions, such as dysgraphia (writing difficulties) and Auditory Processing Disorder (APD). Support Strategies:  ​ Use of specialized fonts that improve readability. ​ Auditory support, such as listening to text or speech-to-text technology. ​ Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) to tailor educational interventions and support. 16. Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) Definition:​ DLD (formerly known as Specific Language Impairment (SLI)) refers to a language disorder where children have difficulty acquiring and using language, but their difficulties are not attributed to hearing loss, neurological issues, or intellectual disabilities. Epidemiology:​ DLD affects approximately 11% of the population, making it one of the more common developmental language disorders. Key Features: ​ Delayed vocabulary and grammar development: Children may have smaller vocabularies and use incorrect grammar for their age. ​ Poor working memory: Difficulty holding and manipulating information in the mind. ​ Behavioral and social difficulties: Children with DLD may struggle with social interactions and may exhibit behavioral challenges due to communication difficulties. Prognosis:​ While many children show improvement with appropriate intervention, untreated cases can lead to literacy challenges later in life, particularly in reading and writing. 17. Phonological Disorder Definition:​ A phonological disorder refers to children who have speech errors that go beyond surface-level mistakes, indicating an underlying difficulty in understanding and using the rules for sounds and how they combine. Impact:​ Children with phonological disorders are at high risk for difficulties in literacy development, as they often struggle with the foundational aspects of speech that are critical for reading and writing. It is estimated that 70% of children with phonological disorders will experience academic difficulties throughout school. 18. Articulation Disorders Definition:​ When a child has difficulty producing clear speech sounds compared to their peers, it may indicate a delay in speech acquisition. Various factors contribute to these delays, including problems with the speech mechanism, such as breath support, vocal tone, resonance, and brain coordination. Articulation Disorder:​ An articulation disorder involves difficulty in producing specific speech sounds correctly. This can be due to mechanical issues in producing sounds or misusing the rules that govern speech sounds. Surface Structure Problems:​ These errors are visible and noticeable to others during speech. Errors may include: ​ Substitutions (e.g., saying "wabbit" instead of "rabbit"). ​ Distortions (e.g., a sound produced incorrectly but still close to the intended sound). ​ Omissions (e.g., dropping sounds, such as saying "ca" instead of "cat"). 19. Fluency Disorders Definition:​ Fluency disorders are marked by hesitation, repetition of speech segments, or the prolongation of sounds that disrupt the natural flow of speech. These disorders have different causes, symptoms, and progressions, so they must be distinguished from one another. Types of Fluency Disorders: ​ Developmental Stuttering: ○​ Onset: Typically begins between the ages of 2-6 years. ○​ Characteristics: Often involves repetitions of words or sounds (e.g., "I-I-I want that"), hesitations, and prolongations (e.g., "mmmmommy"). ○​ Spontaneous Recovery: Many children who stutter during early childhood recover spontaneously by age 6, with a relatively simple and episodic pattern of stuttering. ○​ Secondary Symptoms: If the stuttering persists, the child may develop secondary symptoms such as avoidance or physical tension when speaking. ​ Neurogenic Stuttering: ○​ Cause: This type of stuttering occurs after brain damage to the central nervous system, such as from a stroke or head injury. ○​ Characteristics: Unlike developmental stuttering, neurogenic stuttering may appear suddenly and might not resolve without intervention. ​ Psychogenic Stuttering:  ○​ Cause: This form of stuttering is linked to a specific psychological trauma or stress. ○​ Onset: The stuttering tends to appear suddenly and is often associated with emotional or psychological trauma. ○​ Characteristics: Individuals with psychogenic stuttering may stutter in all situations and typically do not develop the secondary behaviors (e.g., avoiding speaking situations) seen in developmental stuttering. Summary of Key Concepts: ​ Dyslexia is a common learning disability that impairs reading due to difficulty with phonological decoding. It is often associated with ADHD and other co-occurring conditions such as dysgraphia or APD. ​ Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) affects a child's ability to acquire language, without an identifiable cause (e.g., hearing loss or intellectual disability). It impacts vocabulary, grammar, and social interactions, with untreated cases leading to literacy challenges. ​ Phonological Disorders reflect a deeper issue in applying the rules for sounds and sound combinations, which can impede literacy development. ​ Articulation Disorders occur when children have trouble pronouncing words clearly, often due to difficulties with the speech mechanism (e.g., breath support or vocal tone). These are often surface-level errors. ​ Fluency Disorders, including developmental stuttering, neurogenic stuttering, and psychogenic stuttering, are characterized by disruptions in the flow of speech. Early intervention is crucial, especially in cases of developmental stuttering, which may resolve on its own. Each of these disorders presents unique challenges, and early diagnosis and intervention are essential for supporting affected children in their academic and social development. 4o mini Could they learn sign language with books only- no Babbling starts 5 months Friday 10:30- 12:30 webcam on 100 questions