CC200 Final Exam Review PDF

lOMoARcPSD|39675144 CC200 Final Exam Review Youth justice (Wilfrid Laurier University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected]) ...

lOMoARcPSD|39675144 CC200 Final Exam Review Youth justice (Wilfrid Laurier University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Youth Justice CC200 Final Review Format 23 T/F 52 MC 1 short answer (2 options, you pick one, both from week 12) Total of 80 marks, 30% of final grade Stuff that needs editing Everything highlighted in yellow throughout the doc still needs to be added - A For the second short answer question what is it referring to? Is it new issues with the CJS? Does she want short answer questions in point form?? - I would assume so, it's easier to mark - Week 6 (17 Q) Friends - The single most important predictor of delinquency - Criminal behavior is learned through group affiliations such as delinquent friends, that reinforce non-conforming behaviors - Boys and girls are “differently exposed” to criminogenic conditions and/or they are “differentially affected” by them - Differentially exposed: refers to the idea that there is a gender gap in youth crime rates because girls and boys have different exposure to criminogenic conditions - Differentially affected: refers to the idea that there is a gender gap in youth crime rates because boys and girls are affected differently by criminogenic conditions - One reason for lower rates of self-reported crime among girls is that their friends are less likely to be delinquent than are the friends of boys - Boys are significantly more likely to have delinquent friends than girls (different exposure) - The moral judgement of girls is apparently sufficient to reduce and even eliminate the impact of delinquent peers Gangs Levels of gangs (this will be an applied question, she will give an example and you have to say what type it is) Level 1 ○ Fluid friendship groups ○ Criminal activity unplanned ○ No leadership ○ No name, signs or symbols Level 2 ○ Period of time (1 year or longer) ○ Criminal activity planned or deliberate ○ No leadership structure Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ May or may not have name, signs or symbols ○ Violence over reputation Level 3 ○ Hierarchical structure with leaders and followers ○ Criminal activity planned ○ Control activities in territory ○ Gang name sign and symbol ○ Violence (firearms) ○ Conflict subculture Level 4 ○ Sophisticated hierarchical structure ○ Criminal activity planned ○ Legal and illegal acts ○ International business ○ Violence for strategic purposes ○ Criminal subculture Legally it is not a crime to be in a gang, it’s what you do in that gang Gang involvement Toronto Surveys and interviews with street youth and highschool students Toronto street gang pilot project ○ Qualitative interviews ○ 83% males ○ 63% single parent family ○ 14% grew up in child protection ○ 76% Canadian born Street youth are more than twice as likely to be part of a gang than other high school students Family Family Structure: how families are structured in terms of living arrangements (e.g., traditional nuclear family or single-parent family) - Western model of the family as the “norm” – a nuclear family that consists of two heterosexual parents living with their own (birth) juvenile children Parenting types Two important aspects of parenting behaviour (Dianna Baumrind) - Parental Responsiveness: the extent to which parents are supportive of their children’s needs - Parental Demandingness: the extent to which parents are demanding of appropriate behaviour from their children Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Therefore, parents can be (Baumrind) - Authoritative: supportive and demanding - Set standards and have expectations that are consistent with their child’s age - Discuss and explain disciplinary matters with their children - Authoritarian: rejecting and demanding - Obedience and conformity - Tend to restrict children’s autonomy and to favour the use of punitive disciplinary measures - Indulgent: supportive and not at all demanding - Allow children considerable freedom, are opposed to control or disciplinary measures, and see themselves more as resources for their children than as disciplinaries - Indifferent: rejecting and not at all demanding - Spend little time with their children, know little about their children’s activities, and tend to put their own needs above their children’s - Delinquent behaviour most likely to be found among children of indifferent parents Parents blamed for the “problem youth” Consequences of poor family relationships Aggression and emotional disorders Crime Substance abuse Running away Violence Generational issues Crime Prevention - Crime Prevention: operates on three levels - Primary - Focuses on an entire population (neighbourhood, school, youth, or nation) - Meant to stop problems before they start - Secondary - Focuses specifically on those within a population who are seen to have a problem - Ex: substance abuse or living in neighbourhoods with high rates of unemployment - Meant to stop existing problems from worsening - Tertiary - Focuses on the small number of individuals or populations who already have serious or chronic problems - Ex: violent offenders or neighbourhoods with high crime rates - Meant to stop or effectively control future problems Risk and Resiliency Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 - Risk factors are seen as predictors of a child’s or youth’s potential for developing a problem or getting into trouble, as well as predictors of the pathway that children and youth take to delinquency and/or crime or gang involvement - Adolescent risk factors were found to be stronger predictors of adult criminal offending than were childhood risk factors - Resiliency: refers to the relationships among protective factors, risk factors, and how those impact on any particular outcome, such as youth involvement in delinquency or gang membership School and Delinquency - School commitment lowered self-reported involvement in both violent and property delinquencies - Girls with high levels of victimization and a low level of school commitment reported more property-related and violence-related delinquency School Failures - Lack of structure in classrooms translates into teachers’ loss of control over students which leads to violence, disruption, and drug use in contemporary schools - Lack of parental support for school systems leads to children losing interest - Marginalized students having less opportunity through school systems which leads to delinquency - Soft diversity, things such as ethnic restaurants and festivals, is seen as a positive component of Canadian society - Hard diversity, things like racial discrimination, is a negative factor Getting rid of troublemakers (processes, behaviours, type of students) Studies an inner city school with a large minority population Around a quarter of students have been suspended before Study time: Suspension rates ~ 25% Discipline office: 1. Most routine problems: Lateness, cutting class or disrupting class 2. Less routine problems: Fighting, possession of drugs, theft, vandalism or threats to a teacher 3. Rare: Sale of drugs, violence against teacher, weapons Overall, kids mostly penalized for minor offences in school Work/ unemployment Youth consistently have the highest rate of unemployment Marginal position in labour force Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Causes: less training/skill/experience Education: important factor ○ Higher levels of education = lower levels of crime ○ People with higher education tend to have the lowest levels of unemployment Work for wages Types of jobs: ○ Service industry ○ Construction and landscaping (seasonal) ○ Wages (Ontario) - minimum wage, student minimum wage Use age to say we should pay them less Effectives of work (positive and negative) ○ Positive : involved in other activities (less time for delinquency), teaches responsibility, exposes to the world of work ○ Negative: 15 hour threshold during school year can be problematic There’s a time limit, when is working a part time job beneficial, up to how many hours a week, what are some of the benefits (ie. time management, better grades, etc.) Work is beneficial up to 15 hours a week while in school, too many hours prevents good grades Having a part time job leaves less time for delinquency and criminal behaviour It is also a benefit for creating responsibility and values for youth It also provides financial benefits which provides legitimate access to purchase goods rather than finding illegitimate ways to achieve the same things time management skills tend to have good or better grades than kids who don’t have jobs Homeless Youth Experience of Homelessness Shelter: daily activity Peers: important for survival (safety) Hunger: great motivator for criminal activity Lots of boredom: pass time “hanging out” Experiences of Homelessness (Males vs. Females): O’Grady Reading Males ○ Had more power and control ○ Leaving home: due to “looking for work”, trouble w/ the law ○ More likely to be in shelter or hostel users Females ○ More likely to have spent time in foster care ○ Leaving home: due to parental conflict, physical & sexual abuse, mental health issues ○ More likely to experience stress, fear, depression ○ More likely to go w/out food ○ More likely to have access to health services Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ More likely to stay “in their own place” Make Money: Formal economy activities (short-term basis) Informal economy activities ○ Begging, squeegee cleaning(M>F), quasi-legal activities(F>M), criminal activities (M>F) Social assistance ○ Family benefits, disability benefits Females ○ Pregnancy impacts employment by physically limiting what women can do to earn money, and add additional risk to the act of making money Health Issues (the context of the streets): O’Grady 409-411 Lack of sleep Poor nutrition Repeated injuries Inability to maintain good hygiene Vulnerable to debilitating illnesses : sexual transmitted diseases Struggle w/ substance abuse & trauma (affects employment opportunities) Marginalized Week 7: Media (9Q) Narration: voice of adults Crime: violent (murder, assault, rape) Delinquency (crime): committed by “bad” kids (class, race, gender) Physically: menacing Markers: tattoos and body piercing (ex. American History X, kids, Thirteen) - indicators of who the bad kids are Films: Class & Youth crime (stereotypes) Offenders: poor or working - class youth Indicators: dress, home. Parents, school Drug stereotypes ○ Upper - class uses drugs ○ Lower - class deals drugs which is not socially acceptable Films: Race/Ethnicity (Giroux, 2002) (stereotypes) Stereotype (race) - Black youth: communities are central sites of crime, lawlessness and immortality Portrayed as real threat Cultural style & communication Message: “other” (non-white) youth is responsible for white deviance Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Through narratives of drugs, sex, violence Moral Panic Moral Panic (Cohen, 1972) Mods & Rockers (UK) – media amplifying youth deviance Defined: “A condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests; its nature is presented in a stylised and stereotypical fashion by the mass media” (p. 9) Folk devils (target) ○ Youth (Sub)Culture: The Mods & The Rockers ○ Style: Rockers: motorcycle (leather), boots Mods: scooters, suits Moral panic: Five features: 1) Media take an ordinary event and present it as something extraordinary 2) Deviance amplification occurs when ‘authorities’ demonise these perceived wrong-doers 3) They clarify moral boundaries in society 4) They occur during periods of rapid social change 5) Usually young people are targeted as they symbolise the future of society Characteristics of a Moral Panic 1. Exaggeration in reporting 2. Repetition of fallacies 3. Misleading Pictures and snappy titles Social Constructionism & Rhetorical Devices Social Constructionism Spector & Kitsuse (1977) Process: social problems Social problems definition Social Constructionism Claim: any verbal, visual or behavioural statement to take a condition seriously Claim-makers: people making the claim Claims-making activities: in combination 4 Rhetorical devices (she will give an example of a rhetorical device, you have to say which one it is) Rhetorical idioms: situation condition in “moral universe” that use “common sense” notions ○ An idea that is going to persuade people quickly and easily ○ Example : “Smoking is bad for your health.” Counter Rhetorics: counter claim made by setting up two sides ○ Example : “If you are not part of the solution, you’re part of the problem.” Motifs: figures of speech that aggrandizers problem ○ Make situation appear to be very urgent and serious Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ Example : “war on crime” “war on drugs” “an epidemic” Claims-making styles: a style of speech; scientific style Use of a statistic or quotation - even if it is out of context/missing parts ○ Example: 70% of youth found vaping have suffered lung damage Public Arenas Model Social problems definition: punitive condition or situation that is labeled a problem in the arenas of public discourse and action Competition for “public arenas” Value-space Reality - limitations Principles of Selection (Public arenas model) Drama - plays an important role and social problems ○ Depicted in dramatic ways ○ With vivid, emotional rhetoric; more dramatic, more likely to survive competition Novelty and saturation - new images and new ways to capitalize on events and avoid saturation ○ If too repetitive, saturate prime space; new images and angles; to exploit event Culture - certain problems fit with broad cultural concerns and cultural preoccupation ○ Deep mythic themes: loss of life; women and children in “need of protection” Politics - some problems are advanced as they are important to powerful political and economic interests: law and order policies News on youth crime Messages Out of control and increasingly violent ○ The system is lenient ○ Remedy: longer and harsher penalties Likelihood of reporting (influenced) Violence: multiple murders (or multiple offenders) Unusual methods of homicide Victims (fit with cultural myths) Homicides in affluent or suburban neighborhoods “Kids crime” vs Adult crime Placement Broadcast news Murder - as crime of choice (52% youth murder vs 28% adult crime) Other violent crime reporting (27% other youth crime vs 37% other adult crimes) - not homicides or violent Female crime - news reporting (15% youth vs 7% adult) Stranger danger (9% vs 26%) Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Victimization (females - more often as adults) Canadian newspaper (Sprott, 1996) Youth crime: youth violence (94% in two months) Stats (less than 25% is violent of all crimes for teens) Focus on stories: charges, arrests and impact of crime on victims Sentencing (very few stories focus on sentencing; lack of info) - less than 5% Location - police used as sources in 70% of stories Discourses and Headlines Common words describing youth: belligerent, punks, troublemakers, thugs,gangsters (evoke an image that these kids are out of control) Headlines - moral conduct assessment (alarmist reaction) Emotionally driven (frighten public) Example: ○ “Girls cruelty can be deadly” ○ “No jail for student killer called travesty” ○ “Youth gets 18 months for a friend’s murder” Music & Delinquency “The Music of Murder” (Martin, 1993) Argument: implicated in 2 shooting incidents 1992: 144 officers were killed on duty ○ Critique: only 4 juveniles stated influence (and no other cases since) Claim: “primitive music” out of ghettos giving instructions on how to kill police ○ Critique: requires skill, songs of oppression and injustice Blamed record companies for being irresponsible and Ice-Cube as poor role-model ○ Other artists have similar songs ○ Youth: without own voice (political, social) – can turn to music Does Rap Make Youth More Delinquent? (Tanner, Asbridge, Wortley, 2009) RQ: can rap music be linked to crime & delinquency? Is rap music an expression of resistance? Resistance values social inequality and racial injustice Crime & Delinquency (white and Asians influenced by music) Black were not Explanations (identification of glamorized violence of rap culture vs bad stereotype) Gender, Race and Class Film: stereotypes: gender, race & class - Class is often related to drug use and dealing - Race is usually cultural, African Americans viewed as more violent - Biggest steroetype of girls is bad girls have sex and are sexually active and more promiscuous Week 8: Female Offenders (10Q) Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Biology and Physiology Lombroso and Ferrero (1985) and the Female Offender - female criminals are lower on the evolutionary scale than non-criminal females, and that women as a whole are lower on the evolutionary scale than the general male population - Women are portrayed as weaker, more childlike, more maternal, less intelligent, women’s moral sense is inferior to that of men, revengeful, jealous, inclined to vengeances of a refined cruelty - Warn that female criminals, precisely because they are female, are less visible than male criminals Freud - Promiscuous sexual behaviour and prostitution were the consequences of girls’ failure to cope with the Electra Complex - Oedipal stage of development where females learn to repress their sexual love for their opposite-sex parent W.I. Thomas - Biological differences between men and women, is that women have a greater need for love - The need to both gives and receive is a source of delinquency for girls because they use their sex to fulfill other, more basic needs - Sex is their capital - Argues that girls’ problems stemmed from inadequate families, demoralization, and frustration stemming from social rules and moral codes Otto Pollak - Said that women are as criminal as men but use their physiology to hide their criminality - Women are deceitful for three reasons - They have less physical strength - They lack a penis - They menstruate - Says that these factors lead to women being instigators, while men are perpetrators - Is this the guy that blames women for faking orgasims, she talked about it for quite a bit so im assuming it would be on the exam? - yes it is! Biological Positivism ○ Lombroso & Atavism: biological physical characteristics ○ Females evolutionary ○ Criminality is suppressed due to “natural” femininity of nurturing and passiveness ○ Criminal Women: born 1) masculine qualities or 2) developed characteristics ○ Manipulation and deceit (ex. Milton’s Paradise Lost) “The Unadjusted Girl” (1928) ○ Focused on known offenders ○ Arrests: prostitution and carriers of “VD” (STDs, STIs) Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ Concluded: female delinquency linked to sexuality ○ Not that these were oppressive ways to socially control females and their sexuality Chivalry Hypothesis (Otto) - Chivalry Hypothesis: a belief that crime rates are lower for women and girls because people are less likely to view their behaviour as criminal - Maintains that men and boys who are victimized by women and girls are reluctant to report and because men in the criminal justice system (police officers, judges, prosecutors) are reluctant to prosecute women and girls Chivalry not equally bestowed to all females Paternalism – practice of restricting freedom and treating them as subordinates (like children) Type of female (white, middle-class treated more lenient) Type of offence determines how women are treated (violent crimes) Sexual assault (she is a liar) Reinforces patriarchy Power-Control Theory ○ Hagan, Gillis and Simpson (1987) ○ Family types 1) Traditional (patriarchal) family Traditional roles Working-class households Daughters socialized to become mothers Delinquency (females not delinquent; males are) 2) Modern (egalitarian) family Non-traditional roles and power Middle-class households Daughters socialized to take more risks Delinquency (females have increased delinquency; males have lower) Produces more female criminals ○ Criticism Evidence is mixed Theory is sexist Bad Boys or Poor Parents Parental relationships ○ Parenting differences – boys and girls (girls more likely to be referred to CJS by non- police agencies, such as parents and social services) (boys more likely by police) ○ Conflict can arise from double standards engaged in by parents Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Girls can act out due to double standards, then get referred to CJS for “acting out” ○ Abuse Sexual abuse (vs. boys) (victim – for longer/prolonged periods of time and start earlier; often by family) ○ Consequences- running away from home, ending up on street, more likely to commit crimes or end up in sex trade to survive Bad Boys or Poor Parents (Cauffman et al., 2008) ○ Questions: a) general characteristics of romantic relationships; b) partner characteristics; c) interrelations between parental relationships and delinquency ○ Hypothesized: type of partner is more strongly related to antisocial behaviour ○ Methods: from a sample of 1,354 teens (170 males, 184 females), aged 14-17 years ○ Offending behaviour: antisocial and illegal activities (last 6 months) – 22 items and whether or not they were involved in these items or not ○ Romantic relationships (dating history, number of partners, age of first sexual experience, current relationship status) Antisocial encouragement from partner ○ Parent-adolescent relationship (warmth, hostility) ○ Prior relationships Boys (15.4 vs 8 partners) vs. girls (4.8 months vs. 4.4) ○ Risky behaviour (sex, unfaithful, one-night stands, multiple partners) ○ Current relationships Girls (greater age difference- 2.4 years vs. 0.3 years; girls date older) ○ Self-reported offending and relationships Antisocial encouragement (ASE) from partners Girls (sign with bf who encourage antisocial behaviour) ○ Parental relationships (warmth and hostility) Opposite sex parent (most critical) Girls: higher levels of ASE from partner -lower paternal warmth, greater hostility from father Boys: higher levels of ASE -lower maternal warmth, greater hostility from mother ○ Self-reported crime ○ Partners ASE and parental warmth (stronger relation to offending when warmth was high) ○ Girls delinquency – father warmth was high and partner exhibited more ASE = more delinquency – boyfriend’s encouragement more influential ○ Boys delinquency – high level of ASE and high maternal warmth, more delinquent acts ○ Speculate: serious delinquents Status offences Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ 1924 amendment allowing status offences to be part of legislation (JDA) New definition (sexual immorality): targeted toward teenage girls and supported by social workers who wanted to fix the problem of girls engaging in prostitution Support system: big sisters (bigbrothers/bigsisters) would determine whether or not the young girl should go to prison ○ 1930s and 40s Shoplifting: big sisters started showing up to court with probation officers as a uway to deter girls from jail Referrals for improper demeanor that would’ve been a warning sign Danger signs: introversion (lesbian tendencies) or extroversion (aggressive sexual girls) ○ Self-report studies: girls involved in minor offences; run away and sexual activities ○ Court: supervision for females ○ Assumption Boys corrected with discipline at home Girls had deep-seated character disorders ○ Ex. 1930s (Hamilton) 1960s ○ Main argument: girls are more emotionally disturbed, female delinquency is rare and related to mental disorder ○ Belief: difficult to treat ○ Sexually Active: labelled “nymphomaniacs”, characterized as having a female disease of body and mind ○ Causes: (not based on real evidence) Hunger for power Incestuous desires & latent homosexuality Rebellion and self-hatred ○ Correlation to class (lower-class, working-class more delinquent, more sexually abnormal) 1960s & 70s ○ Labeled differently: females vs. males (girls were “immoral,” boys were “frustrated and aggressive” ○ Urgency of problem: “focus on females” ○ Second wave of feminism challenged notions that female sexuality is a pathology or psychiatric disease Canada – New Status Offences (YOA) ○ Status offences replacement (replaced with administrative offences; ex. breaching court orders and failure to comply) *** ON FINAL EXAM *** ○ Females charged – breaking curfew, running away ○ Under YOA: females for own good rather than committing a crime (“paternalism”) Shoplifting (larceny-theft) ○ Shoplifting offences committed in company of others; desire to impress friends ○ Viewed as “pink-collar” offence (a girl crime) ○ Males more frequently; more friends supportive Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ Vs. Females steal more per incident (more higher amount) and at an earlier age ○ Theories to explain- social learning and differential association Aboriginal Girls Aboriginal Females – Canada ○ Over-representation - contact with CJS ○ 2 key factors Socially and economically vulnerable (marginalized groups) Over-reliance on use of imprisonment (more likely to go to jail than non- aboriginals commit) ○ Belief that Aboriginal parents Did not know better (incarcerated as protective custody) To court: parents appeared irresponsible Incarcerations longer to “protect them” (paternalism) ○ Socio-economic deprivation occurs on or off reserve ○ Institutionalized racism: absence of adequate correctional programs ○ Often placed in situations where they have little choice Aboriginal ○ Criminal activity reflects social rather than criminal problems ○ Racialized justice factors Cultural Racism, sexism, poverty should be considered in lives of female youth (aboriginal, WOC, immigrant and refugee) Form communities ○ Perceptions with people of colour that they are more prone to criminality (starts with stereotypes then it extends to the CJS) Adultification of African American Girls Females & Race (USA) ○ Girls behaviour is framed differently based on race ○ African-American girls (responsibility): made inappropriate lifestyle choices - held responsible for those decisions ○ White girls (responsibility): result of low self-esteem and abandonment - not their fault ○ Consequences: incarceration vs treatment “Adultification” of African American Girls ○ (Epstein et al., 2017) ○ Adultification Process of socialization where children function in more mature stage (cook food, do laundry - things that their parents cannot do) How adults perceive children - perceiving them to be older and thus acting more older For girls it happens at an earlier age Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ Adults: belief they need less nurturing and less protection, less support, more independent and know more about adult topic and sex Week 9: Bullying (5Q) Bullying Defining bullying Perpetrators tend to have higher social status Target has lower social status Definition: when a person is exposed repeatedly to negative actions on the part of one or more persons Intentional acts that inflict injury, fear, harm upon another Non-heterosexual females most likely offenders and victims Types of bullying Verbal: words/speaking ○ Teasing, taunting, name calling, threats Physical ○ Hitting, kicking, punching ○ Spitting ○ Locking inside a room Emotional ○ Deliberate attempt to hurt someone ○ Induces stress, anxiety, depression, fear Social (relational) ○ Affects relations ○ Gossip, rumours ○ Exclusion from group, being ignored ○ Manipulation of relationships Psychological ○ Self-esteem ○ Intimidation ○ Torment Power ○ Imbalance caused by Age Gender Status Grade Ability Deliberate Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ Aimed at specific person Repeated ○ Occurs over long time Discrimination ○ Through racism or sexism ○ Or sexuality, class, social status ○ Ability, disability ○ Least considered in school Direct: face to face Indirect: behind back, cyber bullying Cyber bullying Technology increases: methods of bullying Definition ○ When individuals use electronics such as cell phones or the internet to threaten and harass their peers Anonymous, ease, fast distribution Remains unpunished Various formats ○ Flaming ○ Harassment ○ Stalking ○ Denigration (the action of unfairly criticizing someone or something.) ○ Outing ○ Exclusion ○ Revenge porn Taken more seriously ○ Death threats ○ Revenge porn Consequences ○ Increased risk of suicide ○ Difficult for school to combat Characteristics of bullying (gender, age) ○ Some are more likely to be used by boys, some more for girls ○ Some used more when younger, some used more when older Week 10: Policing Youth (13Q) Saints and Roughnecks Saints (rich kids) ○ Characteristics Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 White upper middle-class boys active in school affairs ○ Delinquency Truancy, drinking, wild driving, petty theft and vandalism Activities At school and weekends Were able to lie and get out of school ○ School Cheated on exams and papers Teachers gave them higher grades ○ Two police encounters Roughnecks (poorer kids) ○ Characteristics Working class, white boys Trouble with police and community- often arrested ○ Delinquency Fighting Theft Siphon gas Drinking ○ School Good attendance No cheating ○ Police Lots of encounters All of them arrested Why treat them different Visibility ○ Greater visibility to community and police ○ Saints left town often cause they had vehicles Demeanor ○ Toward authorities ○ Roughnecks made it clear they did not like law enforcement Bias ○ Community and police Reinforcement ○ See themselves as deviant ○ Select friends that affirm self-image Future ○ Labeling theory ○ Saints became successful professionals - most roughnecks did not finish school and ended up in jail (self-fulfilling prophecy) Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Suspicious persons The Rules (unwritten working rules for police) - 1. Time and place: things that do not fit - based on knowledge - May be looking for people selling drugs if that is a problem there or youth out late at night - 2. Importance of appearance: something is wrong - Look for people that have something wrong with them - Ex. expired plates, broken headlights, if you look distressed, have blood on you, etc. - 3. Importance of information: lists - Familiarize with information like stolen cars, missing people, etc. - 4. Importance of behaviour - Some actions raise suspicions - Ex. car driving too slow, people acting with shifty behaviours, etc. - 5. Do Unto Others/Fairness: themselves and preventing prejudices - Treating everyone the same - 6. Threshold: for behaviours (speeding, running lights) - For speeding there is a threshold on how much you can go over the speed limit on highway its higher, school zone, it's much lower - 7. POP” (pissing off police) importance of demeanor - Police citizen encounters, yelling at an officer - 8. Concerns with safety - Anything related to children especially, if they believe a child is in jeopardy or other people they’ll stop them - 9. One act evolves into another - They intervene because they believe there is an increased likelihood that this act would turn into another that's worse - Ex. if people are drunk and yelling at each other, they’ll stop them to prevent it escalating into violence - 10. “Keeping busy” - focus on traffic with down time - Always looking out for these things Rights Rights - search or seizure (sec 8) (police vs. school) - Police are stricter because they are under the law, schools can search anyone at any time without warrant, schools are not under the same restrictions * T/F question Objectives of EM in YCJA (sec 5) - 4 objectives of the YCJA 1. crime prevention 2. rehabilitation 3. reintegration 4. meaningful consequences Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 - why do they have them, why are they included as mandatory - Diversionary Measures - Divert youth from justice system - Informal measures through warnings and less serious offending - Restorative justice is usually used - Meant for non violent offences and first time offenders - Benefits: less costs, less court backlog - Records of warning can be kept - Reflects - Some cases do not warrant time and effort - Understand cautions can be effective - Future warnings will result in formal consequence - Police contact can be deterrent - Avoids labelling theory - Conferences - Family, victim, supporters, police, community members convene to give advice concerning youth having difficulty with law - Discussions to come up with mutually acceptable plan - Provides youth with understanding of consequences behind their act - Youth are more likely to follow through if they agree to reprimand - - Extrajudicial Sanctions (ES) (process & practice, underlying circumstances, examples, dealing with youth) - More formal programs - volunteer work, compensation, specialized program (AA, anger management) - Process: professional agency responsible for meeting and rehabilitating youth - If the youth’s response is suitable and youth completed their task, further action may not be necessary - Parents are notified of any sanction that is imposed on the child - For younger offenders (up to 16), a written apology or reflection is a creative way where they can learn a lesson - Most common is community service - Knowing the 2 year rule - We only keep records for a sanction for 2 years, then the records are destroyed - Starts at the date youth agreed to ES - Underlying circumstances - To be eligible youth cannot commit a serious offence and not likely to reoffend - Counselling or treatment - Belief that youth offending is symptomatic of other reasons - If youth agree the case does not proceed to court - Police culture and young offenders (Schulenberg, 2006, under articles recommend) - What influences the course of action police take against youth? Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 - Seriousness of offence, prior record, attitude, policy of dept. - Harm done, was a weapon used? - Typification of delinquent and non delinquent - How police view delinquent and non delinquent, family and friends has an impact on that - Delinquent youth - Multiple contact with CJS - Commits multiple offences defined as serious - Bad attitude and no respect towards authority - Poor family and friend environment - Non-delinquent youth - No prior contact with CJS - Outside activities and social lives (jobs and clubs) - Parents are willing to discipline children - Friends perceived as non-delinquent - If the youth shows a positive attitude the police are remorseful and go easy Arrest - Definition - constraint of persons freedom by coercion - Relevant variables impacting arrest - Compliant (victim’s) preference - police will arrest the suspect only if that is the victims preference, if there is no preference - police arrest - Relational distance between victim and offender (strangers are more likely to get arrested) - Respect level towards authority (disrespect leads to arrest) - Mandatory arrest laws (homicide, attempted homicide) - Provisions with youth - Legal representation/Parents must be present for questioning - Youth do not have a right to refuse unreasonable search (may search childrens’ lockers at any time for the safety of other children) - Racial profiling - Using race influencing decision to arrest - Over-represented the minority being arrested in CJS - Under policing - less protections for non white youth (Slower response times) - Urban policing - over surveillance of zone 2 poorer communities - Follows belief that more surveillance is needed in these areas because more crimes take place - - Police contact and decision making (255-262) - Young people are under greater surveillance by police, Police are likely to harshly respond to girls committing minor offences - Less likely to arrest girls for serious crimes - Reluctant to arrest girls who act in stereotypical fashion (acting out and crying) Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 - Girls who did not conform to middle class behaviours were not treated lenient - Charge rates and court rates higher for older youth Younger girls were more likely to get charged and go to court than younger boys - Older girls were less likely to get charged and go to court than older boys Week 11: Youth in Court (13Q) Canadian court system: youth court ○ Only youth court system, where it is (provincial c ourt) , etc. Laying a charge (Carrington & Schulenberg, 2005) Offences Homicides & attempted murder (100%) Kidnapping (95%) Robbery (87%) Possession of stolen property (84%) Abduction (80%) Major assault (79%) Traffic/Import drugs (77%) Impaired driving (76%) B & E (71%) Sexual assault (68%) Fraud and related (65%) Theft (53%) Drug possession (47%) Property damage/mischief (38%) Legal Rights - Special Protections for Youth Law: Important Distinctions ○ On informal level: rights and wrongs ○ Law is not concerned with factual guilt Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ Factual guilt vs legal guilt (importance difference) Factual guilt is whether or not someone actually committed a crime Legal guilt is whether or not they can provide enough evidence to prove that they actually committed the crime. ○ Courts: Charges laid and rule and definition of law ○ Evidence needs to prove charges as legally written ○ Arguments- deductive and specific Legal Charter Rights - Courts ○ Sec. 11 Any person charged with an offence has the right to 11(a) be informed of offence 11(b) tried within reasonable time 11(c) not compelled to testify in court 11(d) to the presumption as innocent until proven guilty except possessions 11(e) be denied bail without just cause Legal Rights- Special Protections for youth ○ Language that is age appropriate ○ Consult a parent ○ Lawyer and presence of lawyer w/ police ○ Have adult present when making statements to police ○ Right to privacy (media publication bans) Research shows young people don't understand how their rights work and why special protections are put in place for this reason Crown: charge screening, factors influencing crown screening Charge Screening Make decision for each case (like police discretion) Factors Influencing Crown Screening Culpability of defendant ○ Belief in the guilt of the accused (beyond evidence) Evidence ○ Sufficient evidence for trial Type of crime ○ Violent crime charged before property crime Record of accused ○ 2nd time offenders tried before 1st time offenders Specific types ○ Gang related, DUI will be priority charges Relation ○ Between the offender and victim (stranger versus family member) There is more cooperation from a stranger than there is from a family member Top cases in youth court Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 ○ Most common youth court cases were property offences; theft is the most popular property offence (and always is #1) ○ Violent cases are the next most popular; common assault is the most popular violent case Decisions in youth court (conviction, acquittal, stay, other) ○ Conviction plead/found guilty by trial ○ Acquitted Not guilty by trial ○ Stay (Withdrawn) Discontinue prosecution Dependant on ES/EM ○ Other Not criminally responsible for actions or unfit to stand trial (NCRMD) Convictions: all youth cases: youth vs adult ○ Most end in convictions ○ Most convicted are murder/attempted murder, kidnapping, robbery, posession of stolen property (close to 100% conviction rate for all) ○ Least convicted are theft, property damage, fraud, sexual assault (only ⅔ or less convicted) Maximum penalties YCJA: murder first and second degree ○ First Degree 10 years max, 6 years are in custody, 4 in community ○ Second degree 7 years max, 4 in custody, 3 in community Court proceedings: the plea (guilty versus not guilty; arraignment) (309-311) ○ Youth court trial proceedings begin with a plea (most offenders plead guilty) Arraignment: calling somebody to court to answer a criminal charge (make a plea) Trial with jury (youth) (310) ○ If a young person pleads guilty, the court moves directly to sentencing ○ If he or she pleads not guilty, the case goes to trial A youth court trial is the same as an adult court trial, with two exceptions Initially, under the YOA there was no preliminary hearing and no jury trial in youth court, however, the 1995 revisions (Bill C-75) allowed young offenders to opt for a jury trial in murder cases only The YCJA changed these rules considerably, allowing a youth to elect a trial when an application has been made for An order for an adult sentence, When a young offender is subject to an adult sentence, and When he or she is facing a murder charge Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 YCJA section 67(2) outlines instructions the judge must put to the young person in all of these cases You have the option to elect to be tried by a youth justice court judge without a jury and without having had a preliminary inquiry; or you may elect to have a preliminary inquiry and to be tried by a judge without a jury; or you may elect to have a preliminary inquiry and to be tried by a court composed of a judge and jury. In addition, section 67(6) gives the attorney general the power to require a young person be tried by a judge and jury, even in cases where a young person elects to be tried without a jury. Processing a case through youth court is a complex affair, and the process is longer and more complex under the YCJA than it was under the YOA. Factors to be Considered in Sentencing Aggravating factors: when considered justifies a harsher sentence ○ Participation in crime- more involved ○ Evidence of planning vs in the moment ○ Harm done to victims (vulnerability of victim) ○ Presence of weapon- possible harm ○ Prior record ○ Gang affiliation (or organized crime) Mitigating factors: factors when considered individually or together justify a more lenient sentence ○ First time offenders ○ Reparation made by young person ○ Good character- generally good citizen/ student ○ Time spent in detention Sentencing principles (318-321) (penal philosophies) Deterrence: will not engage in crime if penalty is too great (cost-benefit) ○ specific & general (seen before) Rehabilitation: assumption that people can change behaviour given the opportunity (and help) Incapacitation: perceived as a danger (prison) Retribution: pay in equal proportion to harm done (crime control —“eye for an eye”) (related to proportionality principle) Denunciation: Shaming Individual Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Purpose (1) The purpose of sentencing under section 42 (youth sentences) is to hold a young person accountable for an offence through the imposition of just sanctions that have meaningful consequences for the young person and that promote his or her rehabilitation and reintegration into society, thereby contributing to the long-term protection of the public. Sentencing Principles (2) A youth justice court that imposes a youth sentence on a young person shall determine the sentence in accordance with the principles set out in section 3 and the following principles: (a) the sentence must not result in a punishment that is greater than the punishment that would be appropriate for an adult who has been convicted of the same offence committed in similar circumstances; (b) the sentence must be similar to the sentences imposed in the region on similar young persons found guilty of the same offence committed in similar circumstances; (c) the sentence must be proportionate to the seriousness of the offence and the degree of responsibility of the young person for that offence; (d) All available sanctions other than custody that are reasonable in the circumstances should be considered for all young persons, with particular attention to the circumstances of aboriginal young persons; (e) subject to paragraph (c), the sentence must (i) be the least restrictive sentence that is capable of achieving the purpose set out in subsection (1), (ii) be the one that is most likely to rehabilitate the young person and reintegrate him or her into society, and (iii) promote a sense of responsibility in the young person, and an acknowledgment of the harm done to victims and the community; and (f) subject to paragraph (c), the sentence may have the following objectives: (g) to denounce unlawful conduct, and (h) to deter the young person from committing offences. Factors to Be Considered (3) In determining a youth sentence, the youth justice court shall take into account (a) the degree of participation by the young person in the commission of the offence; (b) the harm done to victims and whether it was intentional or reasonably foreseeable; Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 (c) any reparation made by the young person to the victim or the community; (d) the time spent in detention by the young person as a result of the offence; (e) the previous findings of guilt of the young person; and (f) any other aggravating and mitigating circumstances related to the young person or the offence that are relevant to the purpose and principles set out in this section. Historical foundations (344-351) in text, not in class - foundation for the practice of institutionalizing Canadian youth separately from adults was laid in 1857 with the passage of the Act for Establishing Prisons for Young Offenders - first institution: Îsle aux Noix on the Richelieu River in October 1858 (boys and girls) - Second: Penetanguishene on Georgian Bay in August 1859. (only boys) - intention was to provide a better environment for youth than was to be found in adult penitentiaries. - Both “fell short of expectations” and became “ primarily institutions of work and punishment” - Reformatory: prison that fosters education, industrial training and moral reclamation of juvenile delinquents - Industrial schools: places of reform for all children in need to prevent them from becoming criminals (receive care and education) - Training schools: juvenile correctional institutions before the introduction of YOA - The use declined but was reintroduced for hardcore offenders and for offences that adults would be sentenced to prison for - Youth centres (YOA): - secure custody: more restrictions on movement within and outside institution - open custody: fewer restrictions - Custody provisions under YCJA - custody became part of a larger system of programs - YCJA created 2 new aspects of youth correctional programs: - (1) conditional supervision order: person under supervision must abide by conditions set by court - youth serving custody are now required to serve latter portion of sentence in community under supervision - (2) Intensive rehabilitation custody and supervision - Deferred custody and supervision order: YCJA option similar to house arrest (6 months in custody first) - Intensive rehabilitative custody and supervision order: sentence of the court whereby youth must serve custody term in a facility designated as a rehabilitative institution - this is for youth with the most serious offences - amount of youth in remand is increasing - all provinces decreased in incarcerations rates except newfoundland and Northwest territories Week 12: Corrections (10Q) Sentencing Options Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Sentencing Options - Reprimand (stern lecture from judge; warning) - technically not a “sentence” but it is the least serious sentence you can get, act as a deterrent for first time offenders - Absolute discharge (guilty, but not “convicted” - no criminal record once conditions met (EM/ES) - Conditional discharge (comply with condition, if you fail - you return to court and are further sentenced, if you succeed - becomes “absolute discharge ”) - Community Service Order (CSO)(no more than 240 hours within 12 months) (most often with property & drug offences) On Exam. - Fine (pay fee specified; youth max $1,000) - Restitution (payment to victim to cover expenses from crime) - Treatment order/intensive support, and supervision (treatment facility; upon consent) - Non-Residential Attendance order (program treatment for max 240 hours; rehabilitation) - Probation - most common (under supervision in community; max 2 years for youth) (common; sexual offences, assault, drugs, theft and arson) - Deferred custody and supervision (house arrest) (conditional sentence) (alternative to custody; serve in community - house arrests with conditions) - Custody Probation Probation – Mandatory - Mandatory (Statutory) conditions a) Keep the peace b) Be of good behaviour c) Appear in court as required - YCJA Conditions: a) Prohibited from possession or purchasing weapons and explosives b) Conditions necessary to secure youth’s good conduct Probation – Additional Conditions - Additional conditions - Report to probation officer - Maintain employment - Go to school - Reside at a residence - Report changes in address (to court) - Remain in court’s jurisdiction - Not associate with certain people - Avoid certain neighbourhoods - Obey curfew - Abstain from drugs and alcohol - Attend a treatment program Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Boot Camps - United states - 3 styles - Military drilling and strict discipline - Rehabilitation and less physical activity - Stronger educational component - Goal: less expensive Effectiveness - 1. Recidivism: higher rates after boot camp (the tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend.) - 2. Treatment: doesn’t translate into community - 3. Success rates: low - Canada: two provinces (Ontario and Alberta) Section 3(1)(b) of the Youth Criminal Justice Act - establishes that the youth criminal justice system must be separate from the adult system - section 3(1)(b)(ii) makes accountability contingent on “the greater dependency of young persons and their reduced level of maturity.” In other words, youth are not adults, and so they must be treated differently from adults in criminal justice matters. Total Institution – Goffman - All aspects of life - carried under the same place - Practices are regulated by hierarchy (authority-subjects) - Loss of autonomy (activities are structured) - Suit rational goal toward transforming self (individual) to fit needs of institution (inmate, psychiatric patient) - Privilege system (rules and rewards) - Identity (stripped; homogeneity - uniforms) - Creates Subcultures - argot system (language system aka lingo that’s specific to a place) Correctional Responses - Race (aboriginals (382-393) - 2 correctional problems: 1. The overuse of custody for aboriginal youth - Aboriginal youth are disproportionately held in remand and disproportionately sentenced to custody, their custody sentences are longer - they are disproportionately held in secure custody. High rates of pretrial detention are due in part to the criteria used by judges in determining whether to grant bail. These criteria include whether the youth has a job or is going to school, has family stability, and has parent(s) or guardians who are employed. 2. Inappropriate programming - A lack of young offender facilities and programs in Aboriginal communities has also been cited as a reason for the overuse of custody for Aboriginal youth Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 - smaller rural and isolated communities simply do not have the resources for community options to custody - youth are sent into custody simply because there are no alcohol and drug treatment programs, or because the communities cannot offer an intensive support and supervision program - Reintegration - A correctional concept referring to policies and programs designed to introduce offenders back into their communities as productive, participating, law-abiding members. - a barrier to reintegration for aboriginal societies is that they can use Band Council Resolution to ban people from the community - First Nations communities have the right to use a Band Council Resolution to ban people from the community, and they sometimes use this right to ban youth convicted of crimes because of concern for the victims of these crimes - Return to their homes after serving their sense tence as an “outsider” Problem: - Overcoming their bad reputation in society - Racism combined with their criminal records and lack of education made finding employment very difficult - If they find work it is often unsustainable to live off of because of minimum wage Role of Culture monolithic A single, uniform, undifferentiated idea or structure. Four particular aspects of Aboriginal cultural difference are of significance in justice administration and correctional programming: a principle of not burdening others with one’s problems, an orientation to the present and future rather than to the past, a focus on the collective rather than the individual, and an emphasis on the healing principle and reconciliation rather than on punishment. healing principle A principle of justice based on the philosophy that crime is an injury requiring the healing of severed relations among the offender, the victim, their families, and the community. reconciliation An important component of the mediation/healing process, based on the belief that a productive response to crime is to encourage all affected parties to participate in conflict resolution. - Girls (394-404) Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 - In a system made for boys, a lot of issues they have is because the system is not set up for them - Poverty and marginalization (402) - Most important programming needs for girls is to receive the skills training necessary for economic survival and independence - 15% of respondents were mothers - Majority of girls in prison were on their own - 90% of girls in custody were kicked out of their homes / ran away - Girls in canada: almost all of the girls had initially encountered the youth justice system on charges related to prostitution and running away (both are child welfare matters) - Economic independence considered essential for these girls - Vocational programs are less successful - Do not offer what youth need and want: real employment experience - Programming challenge for female youth is to provide non-traditional vocational and employment programs and to convince staff and potential employers that girls are as capable as boys - They were offered baby-sitting, woodwork, computer use, hospitality management, cooking, and driver’s education Although girls are supposed to be offered male programming like work and life skills training ‘What Works’ Model - This model is evidence-based, and what programs are considered effective is determined by research evaluations of the ability of specific programs to reduce recidivism - correlates of delinquency are seen as criminological needs and they are largely accepted as being the same for all youth regardless of race/ethnicity, culture, class, or gender - these needs are seen to vary at the individual level only, not at the group level YCJA section 98(4) outlines the factors to be considered by the youth court in deciding if a youth should remain in custody for a longer portion of her or his sentence. These factors include: (a) evidence of a pattern of persistent violent behaviour and, in particular, (i) the number of offences committed by the young person that caused physical or psychological harm to any other person, (ii) the young person’s difficulties in controlling violent impulses to the point of endangering the safety of any other person, (iii) the use of weapons in the commission of any offence, (iv) explicit threats of violence, (v) behaviour of a brutal nature associated with the commission of any offence, and (vi) a substantial degree of indifference on the part of the young person as to the reasonably foreseeable consequences to other persons, of the young person’s behaviour; (b) psychiatric or psychological evidence that a physical or mental illness or disorder of the young person is of such a nature that the young person is likely to commit, before the expiry of the youth sentence the young person is then serving, a serious violent offence; Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 (c) reliable information that satisfies the youth justice court that the young person is planning to commit, before the expiry of the youth sentence the young person is then serving, a serious violent offence; (d) the availability of supervision programs in the community that would offer adequate protection to the public from the risk that the young person might otherwise present until the expiry of the youth sentence the young person is then serving; (e) whether the young person is more likely to reoffend if he or she serves his or her youth sentence entirely in custody without the benefits of serving a portion of the youth sentence in the community under supervision; and (f) evidence of a pattern of committing violent offences while he or she was serving a portion of a youth sentence in the community under supervision. Peacemaking circles - An alternative Aboriginal method of resolving criminal conflicts, based on a healing philosophy. - Three types of peacemaking circles are currently in practice in Canada in both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal communities: - the healing circle - Work outside the formal justice system and bring people together to solve problems before criminal incidents occur; they also provide support for people already serving sentences. - the sentencing circle - Work inside the formal justice system and supported by YCJA - The Crown and the defence make recommendations at sentencing hearings or make a “joint submission” to the court based on former meetings and agreements. - Brings the Crown, defence, judge, court workers, and a number of other relevant professionals together, possibly with the offender and family members for meetings - Purpose of these meetings is to gather information that will be useful in making decisions about sentences that will assist in the rehabilitation and reintegration of the youth. - Some Aboriginal communities use sentencing circles that are part of formal justice proceedings but attempt to give responsibility for resolution to the community. This is done by involving community members in the circle meetings and having either a respected community Elder or a court judge chair the circle process - the community peacemaking circle - Used in cases where criminal charges have been or might be laid, and usually take place as a pre-plea form of conferencing, such as family conferencing. Pros and Cons of Restorative Justice *short answer option Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 Restorative justice - taking responsibility, engage with victims & community; acknowledge Restorative Justice - Victim’s rights (relational justice) - Meeting between parties (victim, offender, community members) - Communication between parties - discuss the offence, feelings of how affected by crime, and harm done - Agreement by both parties - Apology as option to make amends (has to be genuine) - Restitution: offender makes reparation - return equilibrium - Function/purpose: change offender’s (future) behaviours - Respect to all parties (no name calling, humiliation, etc.) Pros - Youth accepts responsibility - Consensus between parties (not imposed) - Full knowledge - circumstances of offence, community resources v - Principles promoted - rehabilitation and reintegration - Meaningful consequences - Community & victim involvement Cons - Can cause shaming - Can be undermined by professional dominance who take charge of the meeting, people let professionals take over - Uniqueness (can be lost) (if its been done before, you just repeat it) - Sustain and perpetuate injustices (may exclude people who have a language barrier or those who are not easy to serve like if they can’t get there or travel - Reluctance in participating→ this would lead them to not get full advantage of the help they are getting - Problematic for some crimes (ex. Sexual assault, they might not want to talk to the person accused of the sexual assault) Readings Youth sentences - New Issues *short answer option - Age and adult accountability: youth held in adult institutions in Canada still - Pretrial detention: increasing the use of it with YCJA (young girls and aboriginals more likely to be held in pretrial detention) - Release conditions : criminalize more youth bc conditions are too restrictive for teens to live up to) Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|39675144 - Parental rights/supports - does not adequately support parents who are trying to be effective, not enough resources for them to be better and to help their young person - Cross-over kids: start in welfare system or foster care (under age 12) who become involved in CJA from one state program to criminal justice system Downloaded by Marko Pavasovic ([email protected])