CASA B1-11c Aeroplane Systems - Airframe PDF

MODULE 11A Category B1 Licence CASA B1-11c Aeroplane Systems - Airframe  Copyright © 2020 Aviation Australia All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold or...

MODULE 11A Category B1 Licence CASA B1-11c Aeroplane Systems - Airframe  Copyright © 2020 Aviation Australia All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold or otherwise disposed of, without the written permission of Aviation Australia. CONTROLLED DOCUMENT 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 2 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Knowledge Levels Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 3 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Table of Contents Equipment and Cabin Furnishings (11.7) 15 Learning Objectives 15 Emergency Equipment 16 Types of Emergency Equipment and Installations 16 Emergency Evacuation 16 Escape Slides 16 Escape Slide Inflation Cylinder 17 Escape Slide Aspirator 18 Escape Slide Operation 20 Off-Wing Escape Slide Deployment 24 Life Rafts 25 Flight Crew Emergency Exits 26 Emergency Lights and Escape Path Lighting 28 Typical Emergency Equipment 29 Emergency Equipment Locations 29 Fire Extinguishers 30 Fire Axe and Gloves 31 Protective Breathing Equipment (Crew) 32 Cabin Portable Oxygen Bottles 33 Life Vests 34 ELT, ELB, and EPIRBs 35 Fixed Emergency Locator Transmitter 36 Deployable Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon 37 Megaphone 38 Torches (Flashlights) 39 First Aid Kits 39 Seats, Harnesses and Belts 41 Flight Deck Layout 41 Flight Crew Seats 41 Flight Crew Seat Tracks 42 Observer Seats 43 Attendant Seat 44 Passenger Seats 45 Safety Harness 50 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 4 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Cabin Layout 54 Types of Cabin Layouts 54 Cabin Furnishing Installation 56 Cabin Furnishings 56 Linings and Insulation 56 Air Return Grilles (Decompression Panels) 57 Overhead Stowage Bins 58 Passenger Service Units 59 Attendant Stations 60 Floor Coverings 61 Cabin Entertainment Systems 63 In-Flight Entertainment 63 Galley Installation 65 Galleys 65 Attachment Points 66 Lavatories 68 Cargo Handling and Retention Equipment 70 Cargo Compartments 70 Cargo Handling 71 Airstairs 77 Retractable Airstairs 77 Video Resources 79 Emergency Systems and Equipment Videos 79 Fuel Systems (11.10) 80 Learning Objectives 80 Aircraft Fuel Systems 81 Fuel System Operation 81 System Layout 81 Gravity-Feed Systems 81 Pressure Feed Fuel System 82 Fuel Tanks 86 Fuel Tank Construction and Features 86 Bladder Tanks 86 Integral Fuel Tanks 87 Rigid Tanks 88 Auxiliary Tanks 90 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 5 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Fuel Tank Components 90 Tank Access 92 Fuel Supply System 94 Typical Multi-Engine Aircraft 94 Boost Pumps 94 Pressure Switches 97 Jet Pumps 98 Suction Valves (Bypass Valves) 98 Check Valve 99 Engine Shut-Off Valve (Low Pressure Valve) 99 Filters 100 Fuel Dumping, Venting and Draining 102 Fuel Jettison (Dump) System 102 Fuel Tank Venting System 104 Fuel Tank Draining 106 Fuel Cross-Feed and Transfer System 109 Purpose of the Fuel Cross-Feed System 109 Cross-Feed Valve 109 Fuel Transfer System 110 Fuel Quantity System Indication 111 Fuel Quantity Indication 111 Fuel Quantity - Capacitance Indication System 111 Fuel Capacitance Probe 113 Volumetric Fuel Quantity 115 Electrical Volumetric Fuel Quantity Indication 116 Float Type Volumetric Fuel Quantity Indicators 117 Fuel Measuring Sticks 118 Aircraft Attitude Indication 121 Fuel System Indications and Warnings 123 Boost Pump Indication 123 Fuel Temperature 123 Fuel Shut-off Valves 124 Aircraft Fuelling and De-Fuelling 126 Over-Wing Fuelling 126 Pressure Fuelling 126 Refuelling Shut-Off Valve 128 Automatic Pressure Refuelling 129 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 6 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Pressure De-fuelling 130 Fuelling and De-fuelling Safety Precautions 131 Fuelling Procedures and Precautions 131 Longitudinal Balance Fuel Systems (Trim Transfer) 133 Purpose of Longitudinal Balance Fuel Systems 133 Determining the Centre of Gravity 134 Longitudinal Balance System Operation 135 On-Board Inert Gas Generation System 136 Hydraulic Power (11.11) 138 Learning Objectives 138 Hydraulic System 139 System Applications 139 Hydraulic System Capability 139 Theory of Operation 139 Basic Hydraulic System 140 Open Centre Circuits 141 Closed Centre Circuits 142 Power Packs 143 Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator 146 Large Aircraft 147 Hydraulic Fluids 149 Major Characteristics of Hydraulic Fluids 149 Types of Aircraft Hydraulic Fluid 149 Hydraulic Fluid Contamination 152 Hydraulic Reservoirs and Accumulators 154 Reservoirs 154 Standpipe 155 Reservoir Pressurisation System 156 Reservoir Servicing 157 Hydraulic Accumulators 159 Accumulator Types 160 Gas Pressure 162 Air Valves 163 Accumulator Servicing Panel 165 Pressure Generation 167 Hydraulic Pumps 167 Positive Displacement Pump 167 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 7 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Constant Displacement Pump 168 Gear Pumps 168 Vane Pump 171 Fixed Angle Piston Pump (Axial Piston Pump) 172 Variable Displacement Pump 173 Cam Plate (Swash Plate) 174 Pump Depressurisation 175 Case Drain Fluid 176 Engine-Driven Pump 177 Pump Drive Shaft 178 Electric Motor-Driven Pump 179 Air-Driven Pumps 181 Pump Cooling 183 Emergency Pressure Generation and Auxiliary Pressure Generation 185 Pressure Generation for Servicing and Testing 185 Ground Service Unit 185 Power Transfer Unit 187 Ram Air Turbine 190 Hydraulic Filters 193 Hydraulic Filters 193 Paper Element (Micron Type) Filter 193 Wire Mesh (Micro) Filter 194 Filter Bypass Valve 195 Filter Differential Pressure Indicators 196 Shut-Off Valve 197 Two-Stage Hydraulic Filter 198 Pressure Control 201 Relief Valve 201 Pressure Regulator 201 Thermal Relief Valves 202 Pressure Reducer 203 Power Distribution 204 Purpose of Power Distribution 204 Selector Valve 204 Poppet Type Open Centre Valve 206 Electrically Operated Selector Valves 207 Check Valves 209 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 8 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Sequence Valve 211 Priority Valve 213 Quick Disconnect Valve 214 Hydraulic Fuse 215 Shuttle Valve 217 Heat Exchangers 218 Engine-Driven Pump Shut-Off Valve 219 Actuators 220 Single-Acting Cylinder 221 Double-Acting Unbalanced Cylinder 221 Double-Acting Balanced Cylinder 223 Cushion Type Actuator 224 Lock Type Actuator 225 Rotary Actuator 226 Hydraulic Motor 228 Seals 230 V-Ring Packings 230 U-Ring 230 O-Rings 230 Backup Rings 231 Indication and Warning Systems 233 Introduction to Indication and Warning Systems 233 Reservoir Quantity System 233 Low-Level Switch 234 Pressure Transmitter 235 Hydraulic Pump Low-Pressure Warning System 236 Hydraulic Fluid Overheat Warning System 237 747 Hydraulic Control Panel 237 B767 Hydraulic System Indication and Warning (For Information Only – Not 238 Examinable) Interface with Other Systems 240 Video Resources 241 Landing Gear I (11.13) 243 Learning Objectives 243 Landing Gear Operation and Construction 244 Landing Gear Operations 244 Tricycle Landing Gear 244 Wheelbase and Wheel Track 245 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 9 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Camber 246 Conventional Landing Gear (Tail Dragger) 247 Main Landing Gear 248 Nose Landing Gear 249 Tail Wheels 249 Tail Skids 251 Non-Shock-Absorbing Landing Gear 253 Operation of Non-Shock-Absorbing Landing Gear 253 Rigid Landing Gear 253 Bungee or Shock Cord Landing Gear 253 Spring Steel Landing Gear 254 Shock-Absorbing Landing Gear 256 Shock Absorption 256 Spring-Oleo Landing Gear 256 Oleo Pneumatic (Air-Oil) Shock Strut 257 Metering Pin Type 258 Strut Operation During Landing 259 Strut Operation During Take-Off 260 Oleo Strut Inspection 261 Oleo Strut Servicing 262 Nose Landing Gear 263 Nose Wheel Steering Centring Cam 264 Landing Gear Components 266 Landing Gear Assembly Components 266 Trunnion 267 Strut (Upper Member) 267 Strut Piston (Sliding Member) 268 Landing Gear Torque Links 268 Landing Gear Wheel Alignment 268 Landing Gear Assembly – Truck 269 Landing Gear Assembly – Side Strut 270 Landing Gear Assembly – Drag Strut 271 Landing Gear Assembly – Shimmy Dampers 272 Landing Gear Extension and Retraction 276 Hydraulic Landing Gear System Components 276 Hydraulic Landing Gear System – Typical Components 278 Landing Gear System Actuators 281 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 10 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Hydraulic Actuators 281 Single-Acting Linear Actuator 281 Double-Acting Unbalanced Actuator 282 Double-Acting Balanced Actuators 282 Restrictor and Check Valves 283 Rack-and-Pinion Actuators 283 Walking Beam 284 Over-Centre Link 286 Landing Gear Uplocks 287 Landing Gear Downlocks 290 Nose Gear Up and Downlock – Example 291 Wheel Well Doors 292 Hydraulic Landing Gear Operating Sequence 295 Extension Sequence 295 Electronically Controlled Landing Gear Operation 295 Emergency Extension System 297 Emergency Landing Gear Manual Extension System 298 Mechanical/Electric Landing Gear (Typical) 299 Indication and Warnings 301 Landing Gear Position Indication 301 Landing Gear Micro Switches and Proximity Sensors 302 Proximity Sensors 302 Uplock and Downlock Proximity Sensors 303 Landing Gear Lever Safety Switch 305 Landing Gear Lever Manual Override 305 Air-Ground Sensing Mechanism 306 Landing Gear Tilt Proximity Sensors 308 Visual and Mechanical Downlock Indications 309 Landing Gear Safety Ground Locks 311 Landing Gear Warning Systems 311 Inspection of Retractable Landing Gear 312 Aeroplane Wheels 314 Introduction to Aircraft Wheels 314 Wheel Rims 314 Wheel Bearings 316 Tyres 318 Construction of Tyres 318 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 11 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Aircraft Tyre Ratings 321 Aircraft Tyre Types 322 Three-Part Nomenclature Tyres 323 Aircraft Tyre Dimensions and Markings 323 Chine Tyres 327 Aircraft Tyre Inflation 328 Tyre Inspection and Damage 331 Wheel Removal Safety 343 Tyre Storage 344 Landing Gear II (11.13) 345 Learning Objectives 345 Brakes 346 Aeroplane Brakes 346 Self-Energising Brakes (Drum Brake System) 346 Non-Self-Energising Brakes (Disc Brake System) 347 Single-Disc Brake 347 Multiple-Disc Steel Brakes 349 Carbon Brakes 351 Automatic Brake Adjusters 352 Brake Assembly Wear Pin Indicator 354 Brake Inspection, Defects and Damage 354 Hydraulic Braking Systems 356 Types of Hydraulic Braking Systems 356 Low-Pressure Braking Systems 356 Low Pressure System – Brake Master Cylinder 357 Low Pressure System – Compensator Port 358 High-Pressure Braking Systems 359 High-Pressure Brake System – Brake Pedals 360 High-Pressure Brake System – Metering Valves 361 High-Pressure Brake System – Flow Limiters and Fuses 362 High-Pressure Brake System – Accumulator 363 Other Braking Systems 365 Electric Brakes 365 Friction Brakes 365 Emergency Brake System (Alternate Brake System) 366 Parking Brake 367 Flight Brake and Retract Brakes 369 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 12 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Brake Temperature Indication System 370 Tyre Pressure Indication System 372 Anti-Skid Systems 374 Anti-Skid System Operation 374 Anti-Skid System Components 376 Wheel Speed Sensor 376 Anti-Skid Control Unit 378 Anti-Skid Control Valve 378 Anti-Skid Valve Operation 379 Anti-Skid Valve Operation – Power Failure 382 Touchdown Locked Wheel Protection 383 Hydroplane/Locked Wheel Protection 384 Anti-Skid System – Disarming 385 Auto-Braking 386 Auto-Brake System 386 Auto-Brake Operation 386 Landing Gear Steering 388 Mechanically Controlled Hydraulic Nose Wheel Steering System 388 Nose Wheel Steering System Operation 389 Electrically Controlled Hydraulic Nose Wheel Steering System 391 Electrical Nose Wheel Steering System Operation 392 Body Gear Steering 394 Aircraft Towing Operations 395 Video Resources 397 Landing Gear Video Resources 397 Oxygen (11.15) 398 Learning Objectives 398 Atmospheric Oxygen 399 Composition of the Atmosphere 399 System Layout (Cockpit and Cabin) 401 Introduction to Cockpit and Cabin System Layouts 401 Cockpit Layout 401 Cabin Layout 401 Sources, Storage, Charging and Distribution 404 Oxygen Sources and Storage 404 Crew Gaseous Oxygen Distribution and Charging 409 Pressure Regulators 410 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 13 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Passenger Oxygen System 414 Supply Regulation 422 Crew Oxygen Masks and Regulators 422 Portable Oxygen Cylinder System 431 Compressed Oxygen System 433 Indications and Warnings 435 Crew Oxygen System Pressure Indication 435 Oxygen Cylinder Pressure Indication 436 Passenger Chemical Oxygen System Indication 437 Oxygen Safety 438 Leak Testing 441 Video Resources 444 Oxygen System Videos 444 Water and Waste (11.17) 445 Learning Objectives 445 Aircraft Water and Waste Systems 446 Purpose and Maintenance of Water and Waste Systems 446 Potable Water System 446 Potable Water System – Layout and Distribution 447 Potable Water System – Supply 448 Water Heater 455 Wastewater System (Grey Water) 456 Toilet System Layout, Flushing and Servicing 459 Toilet Systems 459 Self-Contained Toilet Systems 459 Vacuum Toilet System 465 Water and Waste System Corrosion 474 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 14 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Equipment and Cabin Furnishings (11.7) Learning Objectives 11.7.1.1 Describe the construction and operation of common items of emergency equipment installed in passenger aircraft (Level 2). 11.7.1.2 Describe common constructional features and fitment of crew, observer and passenger seats, restraint harnesses and seat belts (Level 2). 11.7.2.1 Recall equipment and furnishing requirements of cabin layouts (Level 1). 11.7.2.2 Identify emergency equipment and recall cabin equipment layouts (Level 1). 11.7.2.3 Identify typical methods for installing and otherwise securing cabin furnishing items (Level 1). 11.7.2.4 Identify common items of cabin entertainment equipment (Level 1). 11.7.2.5 Recall the hardware and configuration of typical galley installations (Level 1). 11.7.2.6 Recall the construction and basic operation of common items of cargo handling and retention equipment (Level 1). 11.7.2.7 Recall the purpose of airstairs and the basic construction and operation of common airstair configurations (Level 1). 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 15 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Emergency Equipment Types of Emergency Equipment and Installations Aircraft can have various emergency equipment and installations. They are used in case of an emergency on the ground, in water (ditching) or in flight according to given procedures. Emergency equipment may include the following: Escape slides/chutes Escape rafts Escape ropes Emergency lights and escape path lighting Loose emergency equipment, such as: Portable fire extinguishers Fire axe Protecting breathing equipment (PBE) Smoke goggles Cabin portable oxygen bottles Life vests Emergency locator transmitter Megaphones Torches First aid kit. Emergency Evacuation Each crew and passenger area must have emergency means to allow rapid evacuation in crash landings, with landing gear both extended and retracted, considering the possibility that the aircraft is on fire. 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 16 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Escape Slides The emergency equipment provides a means for the flight attendants to assist passengers and for passengers to assist themselves in an emergency. If the aircraft lands on water, the slides have quick- release detachable girts that allow them to be disconnected from the aircraft and used as a flotation device. Commonly, an emergency locator beacon/transmitter is included as part of survival equipment Aircraft with exits above 1.8 m (6 ft) above ground must be equipped with slides. Escape slides pack into stowage compartments on the aircraft exit doors. The directional guidance lights turn on automatically during slide inflation and provide illumination during night evacuations. Electrical power for the lights is supplied from the emergency lighting system. Escape slides are normally stowed on a cabin door and covered by a fibreglass cover. They may be mounted on or adjacent to an emergency exit or located adjacent to the exit. They provide quick evacuation for passengers and crew in an on-land emergency. Escape slide stowage 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 17 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Escape Slide Inflation Cylinder The inflation cylinder provides high-pressure air to inflate the escape slide. The volume and pressure of the air are sufficient to inflate the escape slide within seconds with the use of an aspirator. The escape slide pressure cylinders are filled with a mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N). If the pointer is within the green band, the cylinder pressure is correct for the cylinder temperature. The safety pin must be installed to lock the inflation valve during removal or installation of the escape slide pack. Escape slide inflation cylinder 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 18 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Escape Slide Aspirator Aspirators are usually cylindrical, hollow aluminium tubes with sliding cylindrical or internal 'flapper' doors that open when high pressure gas is applied and close when the gas stream stops. They work on the Venturi principle and draw outside air into the evacuation unit. To ensure the slide deploys correctly, it is packed so that the aspirators are directly under the outer cover. Escape slide aspirator Relevant Youtube link: Inflation principle of an aeroplane's evacuation slide (Airbus A380) 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 19 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Slide Inflation Slides are inflated automatically when a door is opened in the ARMED position. They are built into the door or installed underneath the door frame. The slide is armed and disarmed manually. Escape slide mechanism and stowage 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 20 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Escape Slide Operation When the door handle is set to ARMED, the escape slide girt bar slides towards the girt bar fittings attached to the floor. As the door opens, the outboard movement pulls the girt from the escape slide pack, it begins to fall and the system is automatically activated. The gas stored within the inflation reservoir is discharged into the slide through flexible hoses and the aspirator. The slide inflates in 3– 10 seconds. Slide disarmed 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 21 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Slide armed Escape slides layout 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 22 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Manual Operation If the escape slide does not inflate automatically, a manual inflation handle must be pulled. The handle is red and is installed in the top right corner of the door. It can be reached only when the door is open. Manual handle The escape slide can be disconnected from the aircraft floor whenever necessary. The girt extension incorporates a quick-release feature which permits rapid detachment of the inflatable from the aircraft floor. Once detached from the floor, the inflatable drops from the aircraft but remains attached to the girt bar by means of a string, which must be cut by using the knife located next to it, on the girt extension. The inflatable is then completely disconnected from the aircraft. 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 23 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Slide/raft 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 24 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Off-Wing Escape Slide Deployment The off-wing escape slide is packed in a container assembly, which in turn is mounted in the centre fuselage belly fairing. The emergency exits installed over each wing are always in ARMED configuration. Opening one emergency wing exit will start the deployment sequence. The escape slide inflates automatically. A red manual inflation handle, installed on each exit frame, must be pulled to manually activate the inflation and deployment sequence in case of automatic release failure. Off-wing escape slide Relevant Youtube link: Airbus A380 evacuation test Relevant Youtube link: 10 fastest aircraft evacuation slides 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 25 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Life Rafts An aircraft that is flown over water at a distance from land greater than the permitted distance must carry, as part of its emergency and life-saving equipment, sufficient life rafts to properly carry each person on board the aircraft. Where life raft stowages must be installed in aircraft to meet the requirements of this section, such stowages must comply with the appropriate certification of the aircraft concerned. For example, they must be stored and handled according to the following requirements: Has 100% overload capacity Lift and carry, do not drag Keep in clean environment Do not stack equipment on top Report if security tag is broken Do not carry by lanyard. Life raft 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 26 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Flight Crew Emergency Exits For aircraft in which the proximity of passenger emergency exits to the flight crew area does not offer a convenient and readily accessible means of evacuating the flight crew, and for all aircraft having a passenger seating capacity greater than 20, flight crew exits must be located in the flight crew area. Such exits must be of sufficient size and be located to permit rapid evacuation by the crew. One exit must be provided on each side of the aircraft or a top hatch must be provided. Emergency Ropes In civil passenger aircraft which have emergency exits without escape chutes, emergency ropes are provided. They are also fitted close to over-wing emergency exits. They are attached to the structure next to, or above, the exits. In the case of over-wing passenger emergency exits, they are usually accessible only after the emergency window has been opened and are provided with a hook which may be clipped into a fitting in the upper surface of the wing. They enable the passengers to remain on the wing after a ditching. Emergency ropes Emergency ropes 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 27 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Flight Deck Crew Emergency Escape Ropes Emergency ropes are also fitted beside the crew emergency exits. The two escape ropes let the flight crew move safely to the ground through the sliding windows. Crew emergency escape ropes Emergency Lights and Escape Path Lighting An emergency lighting system independent of the main lighting system may be installed. The emergency system illuminates emergency escape lights, cabin emergency lights and exit signs. Power is supplied by 28-V DC or integrated batteries. The escape path system is designed to show passengers where to go and indicate the areas that contain emergency exits. Escape path lights 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 28 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Typical Emergency Equipment Emergency Equipment Locations Typical emergency equipment locations 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 29 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Flight deck emergency equipment 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 30 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Fire Extinguishers Fire extinguishers are situated throughout the aircraft and are used for dealing with in-flight fires in the cabin and crew compartments. Common types include Halon (BCF), water and dry chemical. Halon is currently the most widely used type. It is highly effective on most types of fire. Halon has the additional advantage of being non-toxic and leaving no chemical residue after use. Note A dry chemical fire extinguisher should not be used in the pilot compartment due to adverse effects on vision during discharge and to interference with electrical contacts by the chemical residues (if the dry chemical is non-conductive). © Aviation Australia Halon Extinguisher 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 31 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Fire Axe and Gloves A fire axe is normally installed in the aircraft to aid in escape if exits become blocked. The fire axe handle is insulated against high voltage. Fire gloves are stored close to a fire extinguisher and may be used for personal protection. Fire axe and gloves 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 32 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Protective Breathing Equipment (Crew) Protective breathing equipment (PBE) supplies a smokeless head envelope (smoke hood) and a source of air for firefighting operations. The PBE is stowed in storage boxes installed near the fire extinguishers in: Galley areas Flight compartments. Protective breathing equipment 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 33 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Cabin Portable Oxygen Bottles Oxygen bottles are situated throughout the passenger cabin and flight deck. In the passenger cabin, they may be used for first aid purposes. They may also be used to protect the crew while they work after an aircraft depressurisation or for smoke protection while firefighting. Cabin portable oxygen cylinder 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 34 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Life Vests Life vests (also known as life jackets) may be fitted at each seat position in the aircraft. There may also be an additional stowage for infant life vests. Normally, life jackets are stowed under passenger seats and in easily accessible positions for crew members. Stowage should be kept clean and dry and the stowage retaining device should be checked periodically for security and in case of release. Buoyancy is achieved by inflating the jacket with carbon dioxide (CO2) gas, which is stored under pressure in a small cylinder and released by means of a manually operated mechanism. A standby mouth inflation valve is also provided in case the CO2 system is inoperative, or if it is necessary to ‘top-up’ the pressure after a long period of immersion. To assist rescue operations, life jackets are equipped with an identification light, battery and a whistle is also provided. Life vest 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 35 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  ELT, ELB, and EPIRBs The Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT), Emergency Locator Beacon (ELB) and Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRB) are all similar. The come in two types: Fixed Deployable. Fixed Emergency Locator Transmitter The unit will transmit a coded message (each unit is coded to an aircraft) to orbiting satellites. They are battery-powered devices used in distress situations to transmit a coded message to satellites. They in turn triangulate your position and send information to a ground station. The ELT transmitter has two transmitter sections. One transmitter sends a signal on the VHF emergency channels (121.5 and 243.0 MHz). The other transmitter sends a signal on the UHF 406-MHz channel. Power to the transmitter is supplied by a battery pack. Emergency location transmitter 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 36 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Emergency locator transmitter control panel Deployable Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon The deployable EPIRB is usually located in or near one of the life rafts. It is a small, buoyant automatic transmitter with a water-activated battery and a self-erecting antenna. The beacon is usually attached to the life raft with a restraining strap and approximately 25 m of cord. © Aviation Australia Deployable EPIRB components These beacons are water activated in that they have a battery that uses water to activate the dry electrolyte. Once activated they transmit on the distress frequency of 406.025 MHz. The deployable EPIRB also uses water to dissolve the restraining straps that deploy the antenna and the stabilising fins once dissolved. Once the antenna is in position the emergency signal will be transmitted. The deployable EPIRB contains an internal mercury switch allows current flow from the activated battery when the ELB is in a vertical position, that is, when it is floating. The ELB signal transmission can be stopped if the beacon is positioned horizontally. 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 37 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Deployable EPIRB Megaphone A megaphone may be fitted for use by crew members when the main public address system is not working. Megaphone 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 38 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Megaphone required Torches (Flashlights) Torches are provided near crew stations for the purposes of illumination and signalling. Torch 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 39 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  First Aid Kits Multiple first aid kits are provided for the treatment of casualties during flight or after an aircraft crash. If used in flight, used contents must be replenished before the next flight. Kits are inspected for missing or broken seals. If a seal is missing or broken, the kit must be forwarded to an approved inspection facility. Cabin first aid kit 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 40 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Seats, Harnesses and Belts Flight Deck Layout The flight deck of an older aircraft is normally equipped with up to four pilot seats (captain, first officer, flight engineer and navigator). Computer technology has taken over the navigator’s and, more recently, the flight engineer’s functions. Therefore, modern aircraft are usually equipped with two pilot seats and two or three observer seats. These are used for crew training and in-flight checks. Modern flight deck layout 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 41 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Flight Crew Seats The two pilot seats are usually electrically operated. In case of an electrical power loss, it is always possible to operate the seats manually. They can move longitudinally and vertically to allow comfortable reach of the flight controls. For comfort, the following aspects of cockpit seats may also be adjustable: Recline Lumbar Arm rest position Thigh support. Flight deck seats also provide stowage for flight crew life jackets, flight literature, and in some cases a first aid kit and a torch. From a pilot's standpoint, the seat is one of the most important components in the cockpit. Therefore an un-serviceability in any seat function may ground the aircraft until repairs are carried out. Captain and First Officer Seats 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 42 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Flight Crew Seat Tracks The pilot’s and co-pilot's seats are secured to the cockpit floor on tracks. Cockpit seat tracks differ from cabin seat tracks in both function and shape. Because cockpit seats are longitudinally adjustable, the tracks are I-beam shaped. This shape enables the seat to stay attached to the rail while being adjusted. The top of the rail is drilled to provide locking positions, and the seat adjustment mechanism lock pins engage the holes, ensuring a positive lock. Stops are provided at each end of the rail to prevent the seat from disconnecting from the rails at its extreme forward and aft positions. To give the pilot greater access to the seat when entering the flight station, some seat tracks allow the seat to move outboard in the rearmost position, allowing passage between the seat and the pedestal. Flight crew seat tracks 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 43 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Observer Seats Observer seats, commonly called jump seats, are simple non-adjustable folding seats usually attached to a cockpit bulkhead. Some slide into a stowage position when not in use. Like the pilot seats, they are equipped with five-point retractable harnesses and have stowage provision for a life jacket. Observer seat 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 44 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Attendant Seat The cabin crew seats are installed near the cabin entry doors. This ensures that in the event of an emergency, a cabin crew member is immediately available to open the door. Seat belts on attendant seats are equipped with quick-release buckles and retractable inertia-reel shoulder harnesses, and each seat is spring-loaded to move to the stowed position when not in use. Attendant seat 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 45 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Passenger Seats Seats must meet special regulatory requirements. Each seat is provided with a seat belt and possibly a life vest for passenger safety. Passenger seats attach to tracks on the compartment floor. The tracks are continuous extrusions with circular cut-outs, which receive the seat attachment fittings and allow them to be positioned in 1-in. increments. The rear seat attachment is usually stronger than the front seat attachment, as it normally experiences more stress if the aircraft stops suddenly. The forward, rear or both seat attachments have an adjustable device to eliminate rattle as the attachment wears. Seat retention studs are mounted in the front and rear of each leg. At the rear of each leg is a pivoted double retaining stud. Seat retention and locking are ensured by a spring-loaded shear plunger located at the rear of each leg or by a jam nut on the forward leg. Over-tightening the jam nut may deform the seat tracks. Seat tracks allow for ease of removal or re-configuration. Cabin seat track 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 46 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Seat track fittings Single seat attachment 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 47 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Economy Class Seats Economy seats are designed to be simple and strong but very lightweight. These seats are manually adjustable only. On long-range aircraft, there may be a simple control panel installed for music and flight attendant call, but more sophisticated entertainment systems are becoming more common. Most seats also feature trays for eating and reading, either in the seat back, which folds down to form a small table, or inside the armrest, which folds out. Economy seats 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 48 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  First/Business Class Seats First class, or business class, seats are equipped with an electrically operated reclining mechanism, which reclines the seat to a full-horizontal flat position, forming a bed. Additionally, a control panel lets the passenger use the reading light, the attendant call and the entertainment system (music and video). First class seat 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 49 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Seat Pitch Seat pitch refers to the space between a point on one seat and the same point on the seat in front of it. Airlines have claimed that reduced seat pitch can be compensated for by a thinner seat-back design. Seat pitch 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 50 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Safety Harness Safety harnesses in transport category aircraft are the five-point type. Lap and crotch belts are adjustable in length but non-retractable, while the shoulder harness is retractable and can be locked to firmly hold the occupant when required. Some small general aviation aircraft may be equipped with lap belts. Webbings are manufactured from synthetic materials to a prescribed tensile strength and are no less than 50 mm wide. Two-, three-, four- and five-point harnesses 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 51 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Flight Deck Crew Harness – Five-Point An inertia unit is installed to allow normal movement to all controls without restrictions. The inertia unit: Should operate at any attitude Should be at a setting that will prevent unwanted lock-up or binding Is aligned in the direction of loading to prevent the strap rubbing and fraying from normal usage. Five-point inertia harness 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 52 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Four-point flight attendant harness Two-point passenger seat belt 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 53 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Cabin Layout Types of Cabin Layouts In commercial air travel, particularly in airliners, cabins may be divided into several parts. Passenger aircraft cabin layouts are one of three types: Passenger (first class, business class and economy class) Combi (a combination of passenger and cargo) Cargo. The cabin layout indicates the basic seating layout, the numbering and lettering of the seats, the location of the emergency exits, lavatories, galleys, bulkheads and wings. Airlines use the Location of Passenger Accommodation Manual (LOPA) for cabin layout. The LOPA is an engineering diagram of the aircraft interior that describes the location of passenger and flight attendant seats, emergency equipment, exits, lavatories and galleys. It leads the reviewer through the interior design/layout and is a document that certifies the interior components and installation. Passenger configuration Passenger/cargo combination 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 54 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Cargo configuration Equipment Layout See previous sections (11.7.1.1) for emergency equipment location and cabin configurations. 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 55 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Cabin Furnishing Installation Cabin Furnishings All materials used within a passenger cabin must meet stringent flame resistance requirements and must have been tested in accordance with the regulations. Cabin furnishings 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 56 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Linings and Insulation The lining provides for the aesthetics of the passenger compartment. The insulation provides thermal and acoustic insulation. Insulation blankets are between the linings and fuselage skin throughout the passenger compartment. The insulation thermally and acoustically insulates the passenger compartment. Sidewall panel 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 57 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Air Return Grilles (Decompression Panels) The air return grilles are part of the passenger cabin ventilation. The air return grilles let air move from the upper cabin to the lower cabin for these reasons: Normal conditioned air circulation Air circulation during rapid decompression. Air Return Grille 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 58 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Overhead Stowage Bins Overhead stowage bins provide stowage for coats and carry-on items. Overhead stowage bins 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 59 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Passenger Service Units Above the passenger seats are Passenger Service Units (PSUs). Each of these typically contains an individual reading light control, air vent and flight attendant call button. The units frequently have small 'Fasten Seat Belt' and 'No Smoking' illuminated signage and contain a speaker for the cabin public address system. The PSU also normally contains a drop-down oxygen mask, which is activated if there is a sudden drop in cabin pressure. These are supplied with oxygen by means of a chemical oxygen generator. Passenger service unit 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 60 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Attendant Stations The cabin attendant stations provide workstations and seats for the cabin attendants. Cabin attendant stations are near the forward and aft entry doors. Attendant station 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 61 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Floor Coverings Carpets provide a comfortable, soundproof floor covering. Mats at the entryways, galleys and lavatories provide non-skid, waterproof surfaces. Moisture barriers prevent structural damage from corrosive fluid spills in the entryways, galleys and lavatories. Sealant on the edges makes sure the moisture barrier and adjacent structure have a complete seal. Drains in the entryways and galleys provide drainage overboard for water and other liquids from weather or spillage. Floor coverings 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 62 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Cabin Entertainment Systems In-Flight Entertainment Passengers like to be entertained during the flight. The following are some of the entertainment and services available for passengers. Personal Television Most airlines have now installed PTV (personal television) for every passenger on most long-haul routes. These televisions are usually located in the seat backs or tucked away in the armrests for front row seats and first class. Some show direct broadcast satellite television, which enables passengers to view live TV broadcasts. Some airlines also offer video games using PTV equipment. Many are now providing closed captioning for deaf and hard-of-hearing passengers. Different systems have controls in the armrest or in detachable handsets housed underneath seat- back television screens. Personal television 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 63 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Passenger Address A very important requirement is that the Passenger Address System has priority over all other inputs to the loudspeakers, displays and earphones in the seat in order to get all the passengers’ attention. Also, announcements made by the pilots have priority over those made by the attendants. When chimes are initiated, the sound is superimposed on other audio. Each attendant station has a handset for public announcement, interphone dialling and communication. The handset rests in a cradle. Attendant handset 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 64 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Galley Installation Galleys The purpose of the galleys is to provide food and beverage preparation facilities. Galleys are modular in design and are secured at several locations. The galleys may be installed in the cabin or in the under-floor compartment. Cabin galleys are normally fixed to the existing seat rails with additional fasteners to the walls and ceiling so that the relatively heavy galley can withstand acceleration well above normal flight loads. The galley equipment must be secured against movement during take-off, turbulences and landing. Several types of locking mechanisms are provided. Dry Galleys The dry galleys are not connected to aircraft systems such as ventilation or potable water. Dry galleys are mainly used to store the trolleys and to keep foods and drinks. Dry galley 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 65 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Wet Galleys The wet galleys are connected to the following: Water and waste system Air extraction system Main air cabin ventilation system Electrical power system. Wet galley 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 66 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Attachment Points Upper Ceiling Attachment Upper attachments consist of a bracket and two adjustable tie rods. The final attachment is then achieved from the galley by means of tie rods which are part of the galley. Lower Attachment Galleys are mounted to the floor on existing seat rails wherever possible. Remaining attachment points consist of hard points which are fixed on additional longitudinal beams. Galley upper ceiling attachment 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 67 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Galley attachment points 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 68 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Lavatories The lavatories are part of the cabin layout on passenger aircraft. They provide sanitary facilities on the aircraft. Structure in the lavatory area is painted with a protective coating to prevent corrosion. Water is supplied from the potable water system. Lavatories are also modular in design and are attached to the ceiling and cabin floor using the same methods as for the galleys. Lavatories are equipped with: Hot and cold water taps (hot water from a small electric water heater) Fresh air gasper outlet Oxygen generator and mask Smoke detector Automatic fire extinguisher installed in the waste bin. Typical toilet layout 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 69 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Cargo Handling and Retention Equipment Cargo Compartments In passenger-carrying aircraft, cargo is usually carried in the lower deck cargo compartment. Freighters also use the floor where the passenger seats are. In this case, we speak of the 'main deck cargo compartment'. Some aircraft in service have a mixed configuration. Besides the lower cargo compartment, the main deck can be split into a passenger compartment and a cargo compartment, which is located in the back of the aircraft. Two kinds of compartments are used: Bulk compartments Container or pallet compartments. Cargo compartment layout 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 70 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Bulk Cargo Compartments Transport aircraft are provided with cargo compartments to carry loose objects and living animals. Bulk cargo compartment 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 71 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Cargo Handling Semi-Automatic Loading System Container and pallet cargo compartments are equipped with loading systems. The semi-automatic cargo loading system is very popular and is used in most Transport aircraft. Forward and aft cargo compartments have an equivalent semi-automatic loading system. Unit Load Devices (ULD) or pallets are lifted by machinery to the cargo doors, and then the aircraft loading system takes over. Section of an aircraft showing ULD 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 72 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Cargo Control Panel Each forward and aft cargo loading system is controlled from a control panel installed near the cargo door. With no electrical power available, it is possible to load or unload the ULDs and pallets manually. Cargo control panel 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 73 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Webbing Nets A cargo divider net is installed forward and aft of the door across each cargo compartment and separates the bulk cargo compartment from the container cargo compartment. It also prevents cargo from shifting forward or aft if the cargo comes loose when the aircraft is in flight. Divider nets 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 74 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Divider nets Lateral and longitudinal door nets are installed around the door to keep the cargo door area free of cargo, which might shift during flight, and to prevent damage to the bulk door. The net webbing is attached to tie-down points and net attachment points. Nets, tie-down and attachment points 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 75 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Webbing material is normally polyester. Oil, fuel, acid and alkali contamination causes the synthetic fibres to break down to their natural states. Webbing may be cleaned using pure soap, a soft brush and warm water, then thoroughly dried. Webbings that are not thoroughly dried could be affected by mould or mildew. 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 76 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Airstairs Retractable Airstairs The purpose of airstairs is to permit loading and unloading of passengers without the use of ground equipment and where an aerobridge is not available. Some airstairs can be retracted or extended with aircraft battery power or with aircraft 115-V AC power. Others are hydraulically driven by actuators. Retractable airstairs are controlled from inside or outside the aircraft using the folding airstair interior or exterior control panel. During maintenance or when power is not available, the airstair may be retracted or extended manually. Retractable airstairs 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 77 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Retractable airstairs 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 78 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Video Resources Emergency Systems and Equipment Videos Relevant Youtube link: Emergency Exit Provisions – Emergency Systems and Equipment - Airframes and Aircraft Systems #51 Relevant Youtube link: Emergency Lighting – Emergency Systems and Equipment – Airframes and Aircraft Systems #52 Relevant Youtube link: Emergency Equipment – Emergency Systems and Equipment – Airframes and Aircraft Systems #50 Relevant Youtube link: ECA Group – ELiTe – Emergency Locator Transmitter For Aircraft 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 79 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Fuel Systems (11.10) Learning Objectives 11.10.1 Explain the operation and features of common fuel system layouts (Level 3). 11.10.2 Explain the construction and features of fuel tanks (Level 3). 11.10.3 Explain the purpose and operation of fuel supply systems (Level 3). 11.10.4 Explain the purpose and operation of fuel dumping, venting and draining systems (Level 3). 11.10.5 Explain the purpose and operation of fuel cross-feed and transfer systems (Level 3). 11.10.6 Explain the purpose and operation of fuel system indications and warnings (Level 3). 11.10.7 Explain the purpose and operation of refuelling and defuelling system (Level 3). 11.10.8 Explain the purpose and operation of longitudinal balance fuel systems (Level 3). 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 80 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Aircraft Fuel Systems Fuel System Operation The aircraft fuel system stores fuel and delivers the proper amount of clean fuel at the right pressure to meet the demands of the engine. The fuel system must be designed to provide positive and reliable fuel flow through all phases of flight. This must include changes in altitude, violent manoeuvres, and sudden acceleration and deceleration. Furthermore, the system must be reasonably free from any tendency to vapour lock. Indicators such as tank quantity gauges, fuel pressure gauges and warning signals continuously monitor the system's function. System Layout While each manufacturer designs its own fuel system, basic requirements yield fuel systems of similar design and function in the field. Gravity-feed systems use only the force of gravity to supply fuel to the engine fuel control mechanism. The bottom of the fuel tank must be high enough to provide adequate pressure. This type of system is often used in high-wing General Aviation aircraft. Pressure-feed systems require the use of a fuel pump to provide fuel under pressure to the engine fuel control component. Aircraft fuel system operation 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 81 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Gravity-Feed Systems The simplest aircraft fuel system is found on small, high-wing, single-engine training type aeroplanes. Both tank outlets are connected to the selector valve. Fuel can be drawn from either tank individually, or both tanks can feed the engine at the same time. Gravity feed fuel system 2022-11-07 B1-11c Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems Page 82 of 475 CASA Part Part 66 - Training Materials Only  Pressure Feed Fuel System Low-wing aircraft cannot use gravity to feed fuel to the engine. Low-wing aircraft use a pump-feed fuel system to deliver fuel. An engine-driven and/or electric pump must be used to provide adequate fuel pressure. The selector valve in these systems can n