Carbohydrates: Glucose, Fructose, and Photosynthesis PDF

CARBOHYDRATES Source of energy Aldehyde alcohols (aldose sugar) or ketone alcohols (ketose sugar) Aldehyde - RCOH - Aldose sugar – double bond oxygen is at the first carbon - e.g. 6 carbons – aldo hexose Ketone RCOR...

CARBOHYDRATES Source of energy Aldehyde alcohols (aldose sugar) or ketone alcohols (ketose sugar) Aldehyde - RCOH - Aldose sugar – double bond oxygen is at the first carbon - e.g. 6 carbons – aldo hexose Ketone RCOR 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 Ketose sugar – double bond oxygen is at the second Photosynthesis or third carbon biological process that converts electromagnetic energy E.g. 6 carbons – keto aldose into chemical energy (impt to plant) General formula: Cn(H2O)n Process that provides energy/chemicals needed for plant E.g. C6 H12 O6 (glucose and fructose has this chem structure to continue w/different processes but differ in location of OH) chemical process thru which plants and some bacteria and algae produce glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water using only light as source of energy Carbohydrates – products of photosynthesis. Glucose as product of Photosynthesis is used during respiration to release energy that the plant needs for other life processes. Some glucose are also converted by plant cells into starch for Glucose – aldo hexose storage. Fructose – keto hexose Dead plants are used as biomass because they have stored To identify if levo or dextro sugar chemical energy. Penultimate carbon (2nd to the last C) If OH on the right – dextro 2 types of Photosynth. Rxn. In green plants If OH on the left – levo Light reactions Aka light dependent reaction that actually convert electromagnetic energy into chemical Fish and bone structure – no rings just line structures potential Howard structure/boat and chair – has rings o ATP and NADPH If ring o initiated by pigments (green pigments). Pyranose – has 6 C Dark reactions Furanose – has 5 C Aka light independent reaction/Calvin Benson cycle/Calvin cycle Right – down consists of the enzymatic reactions that utilize the energy Left – up from the light reactions to fix carbon dioxide into sugar Beta – if OH attached to anomeric carbon (C with 2 O) is up o needs ATP and NADPH to proceed Alpha – if OH attached is down Adenosine triphosphate and nicotinamide adenine diphosphate ‘BUDA’ – beta up, down alpha o product is carbohydrates, oxygen, and water The dark reaction will fail if the plants are deprived of light for Biosynthesis of carbohydrates too long bc they use the output of the initial light dependent reactions. Calvin cycle  greek word oligos (few) and sacchar (sugar) composed of 2-10 sugar units includes disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetra… Polysaccharides composed of more than 10 sugar units mono and disaccharides are same in characteristics most oligo and polysaccharides are tasteless and fibrous fructose – sweetest sucrose – standard sweetness lactose – least sweet the makeup of polysaccharides are monosaccharides that are bonded by glycosydic bond Stage 1: Carbon fixation Classification based on the # of carbon atoms Inorganic carbon molecule is fixed into organic molecule Happens in the stroma of the plant # of Carbons Category Examples Uses 3 CO2, RUBISCO enzyme, and 3 RUBP name RUBISCO – Ribulose Biphosphate carboxylase RUBP – Ribulose-1,5-Biphosphate (has 5 Carbons) 2 Diose Hydroxyacetaldehyde Per 1 mole of CO2 and 1 mole of RUBP, 2 mole of 3- 3 Triose Glyceraldehyde, phosphoglycerate is produced (6 moles total)(has 3 Carbons) dihydroxyacetone (ketose) Stage 2: Reduction 4 Tetrose Erythrose, erythrulose When a substance is reduced, another is oxidized (aldose) Uses the chemical potential from the light reaction 5 Pentose Ribose, xylulose, G3P has an H added (gain of electron) (3- xylose (ketose) phosphoglycerate was reduced) 6 mol of G3P needs 6 ATP And 6 NADPH 6 Hexose Gluc, Fruc, Mann o ATP Is oxidized to ADP (1 phosphate was 7 Heptose Sedoheptulose decreased so an electron is also removed) o The 6 phosphorus will just go out) 8 Octose o Electrons are transferred by the phosphate group NADPH to NADP+ is an oxidation process 9 Nonose Neuraminic acid Stage 3: regeneration 10 Dectose 1 G3P will go to the cytoplasm of the plant which will lead Diose – simplest sugar to the formation of secondary plant substances (tannins, Triose – not found in free state flavonoids, amino acids) Tetrose – not found in free state Only 5 molecules will continue In calvin cycle (needed to Pentose – occurs free in nature/common in nature regenerate RUBP) e.g. byproducts of hydrolysis of gums, mucilage, and G3P to RUBP is reduction (bc ATP was oxidized to ADP) hemicellulose 15 total carbons (same non. For G3P and RUBP) e.g. ribose (aldose), xylose (aldose) ribulose (ketose), Carbohydrates (Classification) xylulose (ketose) Monosaccharides hexose – first detectable sugar synthesized by plant Crystalline property - There are 16 possible aldohexoses and 18 ketohexoses Sweet taste which if we consider both alpha and beta forms it will permit 48 isomers. Of these, only 2 occur in the free state in plants: Cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler sugars, considered as ○ dextro fructose (levulose) the simplest of sugars ○ dextro glucose (dextrose) ○ both are found in sweet fruits, honey, and invert sugars Oligosaccharides  ○ when starch is hydrolyzed it will yield glucose Liquid Glucose ○ when inulin is hydrolyzed it will yield fructose Obtained by the incomplete hydrolysis of starch Usually prepared by controlled acid hydrolysis of corn Monosaccharide starch D-xylose (pentose sugar) Colorless or yellowish syrupy liquid that is nearly odorless It is obtained by boiling corn cobs, straw, or similar and taste sweet materials with dilute acid to hydrolyze the xylan property or This contains primarily of dextrose, dextrins, maltose and xylan polymer water has a sweet taste and is normally absorbed from the small Can be used as a pharmaceutic necessity intestine but it is not metabolized to a significant extent by the mammalian enzymes Calcium Gluconate diagnostic agent to evaluate the intestinal absorption Calcium salt of gluconic acid the relative excretion of the xylose in the urine is an Gluconic acid - obtained by the oxidation of the dextrose. It indicative of intestinal malabsorption can be with chlorine or electrolytically in the presence of a ○ may be celiac disease, Sprue, Crohn’s disease, bromide radiation enteritis Obtained by fermentation Soluble in cold water and less irritating for parenteral uses D-glucose/dextroglucose than the calcium chloride 80 - 120 mg % in your blood is composed of this glucose Can be used as an electrolyte replenisher and that can be also known as given as an iv infusion at intervals of 1-3 days o D-glucopyranose o Dextrose Calcium Gluceptate and Calcium Levulinate o Grape sugar Calcium salts of the 7 and 5 carbon acids that are o Blood sugar prepared from glucose via the cyanohydrin intermediate occurs naturally in grapes and other fruits and the levulinic acid usually obtained by the controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of Can be prepared from starch or cane sugars by boiling starch with hydrochloric acid high conversion hydrolysate are subjected to rigorous The salts are considered to be calcemic and are used purification procedures to yield the crystalline dextrose that parenterally to obtain the therapeutic effects of calcium is considered to be 99.5% - 100% pure and is suitable for parenteral use Ferrous Gluconate it can be used as a nutrient Ferrous salt of the gluconic acid it can also be an ingredient in dextrose inj, alcohol, and Classed as a hematinic and is employed in iron deficiency dextrose and NaCl inj anemia also in dextrose and NaCl tablets, It causes less gastric distress than the inorganic ferrous in dextrose inj - dopamine HCl, lidocaine HCl, KCl inj salts can also be present in anticoagulant citrate phosphate Similarity of apples, honey, corn, berries, and candies: dextrose solution each of which is an anticoagulant for the Fructose storage of the whole blood PRODUCTS CONTAINING GLUCOSE Fructose/levulose Dextrates sweet fruits, honey from Apis mellifera can also be known as the d-fructose, d-fructopyranose, or Obtained by controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch fruit sugar Purified mixture of saccharides that contains NLT 93% of usually obtained by the inversion of sucrose and the dextrose separation of fructose from glucose Are used industrially as an agent of pharmaceutic fructose is a ketone sugar that occurs naturally in most of necessity the sweet fruits and honey Used as sweetening agent, substitute for sucrose and can also be obtained from the hydrolysis of inulin because syrups and as a tablet binder and coating agent inulin is considered to be a fructosan They have replaced liquid glucose for many fructose occurs as colorless crystals or as white crystalline pharmaceutic purposes or granular it is an odorless powder that has a sweet taste  it is freely soluble in water sources: o Sacharum officinarum Linne. (Fam. Poaceae) can be used as a sugar for the diabetic people and may be o Beta vulgaris Linne (Fam. Chenopodiaceae) of particular benefit in diabetic acidosis ▪ Beet sugar does not contribute to blood sugar o Acer saccharum (Fam. Aceraceae) ▪ maple sugar PRODUCTS CONTAINING FRUCTOSE High-fructose sweeteners USES OF SUCROSE pharmaceutic necessity for syrups prepared by controlled enzymatic isomerization of glucose sweetening agent high-fructose corn syrups containing up to 90% fructose demulcent are available commercially nutrient Isomerism – difference in spatial arrangement of atoms at high conc. Bacteriostatic property masks the disagreeable taste in troches and tablets and Galactose (Brain sugar) retards oxidation in certain preparations aka brain sugar rapidly absorbed in the small intestine if an individual is deficient with an enzyme to metabolize galactose sugar, the unmetabolized sugar will accumulate into blood that will cause damage to the main organs of the body. e.g. liver, kidneys, eyes, brain. this disorder is known as galactosemia found in gray brain matter Granulocyte – Monosaccharide sugar and is found in neuronal cells in the gray matter of the brain Cerebrocytes – Single unit. Attached to a fatty acid (esp. stearic acid) and is found in 7% of the brain at the cerebroside and myelin sheath of the nerves enzymatic hydrolysis of starch will yield maltose. Mucic acid test - the nitric acid or reagent used has a capacity to oxidize both aldehyde and the primary alcoholic groups that MALTOSE are present at carbon 1 and 6 of the galactose. This will yield an insoluble precipitate or rod shaped crystals of the mucic upon hydrolysis of maltose, it will yield 2 units of glucose + acid under higher temperature 1 fructose produced in large quantities by the hydrolysis of starch Oligosaccharides during the germination of barley and other grains. Disaccharides o Barley – Hordeum vulgare (Poaceae) which yield 2 monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis e.g. milo, Maltesers, beer, malted milk all have malt/maltose sugar Sucrose considered as a reducing sugar can be obtained in fruit juices, sugar cane, sugar beet, the has free aldehyde group that can participate in a reaction sap of certain maples (REDOX) an example of disaccharide Used in baking and brewing, sweetener, source of only disaccharide that occurs abundantly in the free state fermentable sugar for yeast in prod of beer and bread in plants Bond is located at alpha 1 and 4 upon hydrolysis, it will yield an invert sugar which consists of equimolecular quantities of glucose and CELLOBIOSE fructose the enzymatic breakdown of cellulose will bring cellobiose. a non-reducing sugar the cellobiose upon hydrolysis will yield 2 units of glucose the bond is usually located at alpha 1 and 4 cellulose is obtained from plant cell walls also known as saccharum or sugar cotton Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae)or Corchorus widely distributed in plants olitorius (Malvaceae)  reducing sugar will yield 1 unit of glucose and 1 unit of galactose upon Used as an indicator for diagnosis of intestinal diseases hydrolysis like Crohn’s disease and malabsorption disorders has Potential to be used in biofuel prod How are milk products produced TREHALOSE Milk allowed to settle for a few hours Fat globules will rise to the top (Butter) enzymatic breakdown of plants, bacteria, ergot, fungi Liquid portion on the bottom is butter milk upon hydrolysis, 2 units of glucose will be obtained. If the fats are removed - skimmed milk 0.5% fat Non reducing sugar If skimmed milk is treated with renin - forms into coagulum Used as stabilizer, sweetener, and cosme industry for The coagulum (if collected and liquid is removed) it is moisture retaining properties, pharma industry for cheese preserving biological samples Liquid separated from coagulum is the whey SOPHOROSE whey contains lactose and inorganic salts beta 2, 2 glycosidic bond Not commonly found, produced by non pathogenic yeasts Condensed milk Candida apicola, Starmerella bombicola evaporating liquid in milk with pressure (Saccharomycetaceae) It becomes concentrated and water is removed (becomes reducing sugar sweeter) the enzymatic breakdown of Sophora japonica and partial What is your option when you are lactose-intolerant? hydrolysis of stevioside - treating with dilute acid and purified with charcoal caused by a deficiency of the intestinal enzyme lactase - Charcoal column chromatography lactase splits the lactose into 2 smaller groups which is the - Allows isolation of sophorose glucose and the galactose, therefore allows the lactose to be absorbed from the intestine the sophorose upon hydrolysis will also yield 2 units of Regular milk glucose contain lactose sophorose is a precursor for sophorolipids Lactose, upon hydrolysis, will yield glucose and galactose, therefore you need now that enzyme (lactase) to hydrolyze Stevioside - artificial sweetener the lactose sugar Leguminosae is fabaceae Partial hydrolysis of Fabaceae family Lactose-free milk Contains lactase that helps breakdown the naturally Used as biosurfactant, have appli in environmental, occurring lactose into 2 simple sugar (glucose and cosme, antimicrobial agent galactose) Its lactose content is much lower than the regular milk PRIMEVEROSE It’s a component of sugar, glucose and galactose that Partial hydrolysis yields to 1 glucose 1 xylose make up the total sugar Beta 1, 6 contains the enzyme to breakdown the lactose sugar Sources: Meadow worth, Filipendula ulmaria, hydrolysis of spiraein Lactulose Not widely used in commercial appli semi-synthetic sugar prepared by alkaline rearrangement Reducing sugar of lactose. upon hydrolysis, it will yield 1 fructose and 1 galactose Lactose poorly absorbed – used as laxative also known as milk sugar o most orally ingested, will reach the colon can be obtained from cow’s milk, fresh, unpasteurized, or unchanged pasteurized milk of Bos taurus Linne o bacteria in the colon metabolize the disaccharide (Fam. Bovidae), without modification to acetic and lactic acids a nutrient and pharmaceutic necessity used in tablet o sufficient accumulation of this irritating acids will diluent, nutrient in infant’s food, provides preferred cause a laxative effect substrate for lactobacilli, can be used as inert diluent for also effective in chronic constipation other drugs most significant therapeutic use of the sugar is to  decrease the blood ammonia concentration in portal considered to be a storage carbohydrate systemic encephalopathy Also found in kiwi (Actinidia) o assoc. with liver dysfunction Metabolism is Target for root parasitic weed control o liver has no capacity to detoxify NH3 o If metabolism is inhibited, it can be stopped from Environment becomes acidic bc of the 2 acids (favorable reproducing as weeds) japanese research enviro to convert ammonia into ammonium NH4) Source Psyllium spp Plantago indica ammonium is not readily absorbed into blood stream o Ammonia trapping RAFFINOSE o Reduces systemic absorption of ammonia Lactose + fructose o 25-50% decreased Can be from cottonseeds Gossypium hirsutum USES OF LACTULOSE Can incr the growth of lactic acid bacteria Can incr SCFA (short chain fatty acids) brand name duphalac - used for constipation Can reduce constipation, inhibit formation of putrescine (laxative effect) compounds, and reduce risk of heavy cardiovascular disease Trisaccharides another oligosaccharide contains 3 units of sugar units that are bonded together by glycosidic bond 3 monosaccharides bonded by glycosidic bond MANNETRIOSE 1 galctose 1 lactose Can be from manna Fraxinus ornus (Oleaceae ash) GENTIANOSE Usually found in plant cell walls of yeast and bacteria, or galactomannan 2 glu + 1 fru Used as prebiotic to promote beneficial gut bacteria Role as plant metabolite Substrate for studying beta mannanases From Gentiana spp. Gentiana lutea RHAMINOSE MELEZITOSE Can be found in citrus fruits from Rutaceae family part of honeydew (secreted by insect) Used in cosmetics and skincare (moisturizing and anti aging properties) - Honey dew is produced/excreted by insect aphids Biochem marker in bacterial ____ - Aphids/plant sap eating insects feed on sugar present in a Sweetening agent plant (primarily sucrose) obtained from Rhamnus infectoria - The sucrose ingested is converted through enzymatic conversion into melezitose - This conversion helps aphids manage osmotic stress and SCILLATRIOSE reduce water potential (beneficial to their survival) scillatriose will yield rhamnose and 2 units of glucose, can - These insects secrete honey dew which is eaten by ants and be obtained from glycoside of squill bees (symbiotic rs with ants, ants protect the aphids) Used for heat conditions (anti arrhythmic drug) - Serves as an attractant for ants and food for bees - Can be metabolized to 1 unit glucose and 1 unit sucrose - glycoside has sugar and non sugar component - Genin (pcol activity) and non genin (sugar component) sugar that came from manna from larix = melezitose, upon Tetrasaccharides hydrolysis, will yield 2 units of glucose and 1 unit of fructose 4 units of sugars (or 4 monosaccharide units) that are bonded together by glycosidic bond PLANTEOSE very good example is stachyose, retrieved from the Can be fructose and lactose tubers of Stachys japonica (Lamiaceae) Found in sesame seeds Sesamum indicum  stachyose upon hydrolysis will yield 2 galactose + 1 2 enzymes that can hydrolyze the starch - alpha amylase glucose + 1 fructose and beta amylase - Also found in beans (eg soy beans Glycine soja, lentils, green Alpha Amylase beans, pumpkin, cabbage) it can split the alpha -1,4-glycosidic bond - Stachyose cannot be digested by humans but used as a Amylase that is present in pancreatic juice - amylopsin sweetener Amylase that is present in saliva - ptyalin POLYSACCHARIDES More than 10 Note: the end product/by products of splitting are glucose, 2 types homoglycan or heteroglycan maltose and amylopectin o Homo - 1 kind of sugar only e.g. all fructose, all glucose (inulin and starch) Beta Amylase o Hetero - has other components e.g. gums and maltose is composed of 2 glucose units mucilage its end product is a disaccharide This enzyme lacks the capacity to hydrolyze the alpha composed of polysaccharide units 1-6 bonds, therefore, the reaction stops. Pentosan – araban (arabinose), xylan (xylose) leaving the polysaccharide fragments (known as dextrin) Glucosan - starch, dextrin, cellulose, glycogen dextrin is the product of incomplete hydrolysis of the Fructosan – inulin starch Mannosan – vegetable ivory Uses of Starch can be used as a tablet excipient Starch disintegrating agent homoglycan Sodium starch glycolate is considered to be a semi considered to be a glucosan synthetic material which is the sodium salt of the temporary storage form of photosynthetic products in carboxymethyl ether of this starch plants ingredient in dusting powder can be extracted from corn Zea mays (Poaceae), with a tablet filler, binder, and (Pregelatinized starch) Triticum aestivum same family of corn disintegrant (Sodium starch glycolate) from potato Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), sweet A starch suspension - antidote for iodine poisoning. potato Ipomoea batatas (Convolvulaceae) cassava Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae) PRODUCTS THAT ARE RELATED TO STARCH Hetastarch generally form colloidal solutions rather than true semi synthetic material that is prepared in such a manner solutions that it is approximately 90% of amylopectin if the suspension of starch and cold water is added to boiling Inulin or hydrous inulin water while stirring, the opaque granules swell and finally it is considered as a fructosan rupture to give that translucent soln obtain from the subterranean organs of the members of the the family “Compositae” if the soln if somewhat concentrated, it sets to a firm jelly when at the same time, it is abundant and occurs in the cell sap cooled and by immersing the fresh rhizome or roots in alcohol for some time 2 components - amylose and amylopectin inulin usually crystallizes and aggregates Amylose Amylopectin it is also used in culture media - fermentation identifying Linear Branching every 25-30 agent for certain bacteria and in special laboratory 250-300 units methods for the evaluation of renal functions D-glucopyranose a 1,4 and a 1,6 it is filtered only by the glomeruli and is neither excreted Ring structure product is dextrins nor reabsorbed by the tubules A 1,4 (incomplete hydrolysis) More water soluble blue violet/purple complex Dextran Deep Blue complex with with iodine polyglucan iodine it is formed by the action of microorganism into a carbohydrate which is now the sucrose  Leuconostoc mesenteroides - it has an enzyme system Artificial Tears that is capable of converting sucrose into dextran solutions for contact lens enzyme that is present - dextran sucrase Hydroxyethylcellulose has transglucosylase enzyme system Methylcellulose Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose Adjunct in tx of shock Can be used to reduce blood viscosity but not first line Tablet Binder and Film Coating treatment ethylcellulose Iron dextran inj - sterile colloidal solution of ferric hydroxypropylcellulose hydroxide and hydrolysed dextran with low molecular weight - hematinic preparation (anti anemia) Enteric Coating Cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP) Glycogen 8-10 residue branching Suspending agent and local hemostatics glucosan methylcellulose major form of stored carbohydrate in animals as well as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose humans sodium carboxymethyl cellulose -Process: formed through glycogenesis (search pathway) - Storage places: muscle and liver Bulk Laxative - Stored when Insulin is triggered by pituitary gland (signal beta most of the cellulose derivatives are used as a laxative cells in pancreas to release insulin) Pyroxylin - Insulin facilitates storage of glucose in storage cells, once it can be obtained from the cotton in which this cotton stored it is in the form of glycogen reacts with nitric and sulfuric acids - If deprived of eating carbohydrates, the stored glycogen will Collodion - pyroxylin, alcohol and ether (1:3 be converted to glucose to give energy (glycogenolysis which alcohol:ether) needs glucagon) Flexible Collodion - collodion, castor oil (3%), and camphor (2%) - Glycolysis - intermediate reaction - (acetyl coa and nadph - castor oil is used as a plasticizer produced) - Krebs cycle (nadph can make energy) - Nadph - camphor is for waterproofing goes to etc (electron transport chain) Collodion and Flexible Collodion are used as topical protectants In glycogenesis – high insulin Classify the ff: Carbohydrates In glycogenolysis – high glucagon Monosaccharides - Glucose and Galactose Disaccharides - Sucrose and Maltose Cellulose Polysaccharides - Inulin and Cellulose not metabolized by the human body Structural elements in plants Sugar reduced – sugar alcohol Sugar oxidation – sugar acid Eg purified cotton Gossypium hirsutum Used in surgical dressing and textile industry (tela), Reduction source in manufacturing explosives Glucose to sorbitol Mannose to mannitol Powdered Cellulose - binider and disintegrating agent Fructose to mannitol or sorbitol Glycerol - humectant Microcrystalline Cellulose - diluent in tablets - if it undergoes nitration - NTG for angina Purified Rayon Sorbitol - hydrated to tetrahydropyrans and tetrahydrofuran is a fibrous form of bleached, regenerated cellulose compounds (sorbitans) which can be used as it is used as a surgical aid and may not contain more than surfactant/emulsifying agents (spans & tweens) Sorbitol can be dehydrated to 1,4,3,6-dianhydrodextro 1.25% of titanium dioxide sorbitol (isosorbide) If isosorbide is nitrated - isosorbide dinitrate and Cellulose Derivatives mononitrate - both used for angina there are a lot of cellulose derivatives that are available in the market and it will be categorized according to its uses PRODUCT OF GLYCOLYTIC AND OXIDATIVE METABOLISM Plant acids Sodium lactate inj. – electrolyte replenisher and also byproducts of various metabolic pathways used in the treatment of metabolic acidosis Starts with glycolysis Calcium lactate – calcium replenisher Oxalic acid Glycolysis starts with glucose undergoes phosphorylation to glucose- Also known as ethanedioic acid 6-phosphate E.g. from kamias Product -pyruvic acid/pyruvate with 2 ATP Anhydrous (C2H2O4) Pyruvic acid - aerobic – acetyl coA product Dihydrate (C2H2O4 2H2O) Anaerobic - lactic acid used as bleaching agent Acetyl coA will enter Krebs cycle (search other name) malonic acid Plant acid will be produced found in some fruits but not a major component of citrus Anaerobic product - lactic acid fruits - causes muscle spasms (deprived of oxygen so it can’t push precursor for polymer synthesis flavoring agent to produce acetyl coA and produces lactic acid instead) Succinic acid Cherry Juice liquid expressed from the fresh, ripe fruit of Prunus used in synth of barbiturates and antibiotics cerasus Linne (Rosaceae); contains NLT 1% malic acid water-soluble, colorless crystal, with an acid taste that is flavored vehicle that serves as a pleasant, disguising used as a chemical intermediate in medicine, agent in pharm. mixtures manufacture, and to make perfume esters in foods, it can be used as a sequestering agent or as a PLANT ACIDS Citric acid sequestrant, as a buffer, and neutralizing agent chemical name: butane dioic acid or ethane-1,2- isolated by Scheele as a crystal form from the lemon juice dicarboxylic acid in 1784. chemical formula of C4H6O4 present in many fruits and plants obtained commercially from lemons, lime, or pineapples. Glutaric acid but mostly by fermentation of sucrose plasticizer, plays role in metabolism of glycine, is found ini useful in buffering systems sugarcane, serves as food additive and contributes to tart acidulant in effervescent formulations flavor tricarboxylic acid pimelic acid found in plant oils 2-hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid used as lubricant and in plastic production C6 H8 O7 suberic acid Lactic Acid found in plant oils used in perfumes and soaps also known as hydroxypropionic acid (a monocarboxylic acid) Azelaic acid Chemical formula : C3H6O3 found in Triticum aestivum (wheat) and Hordeum vulgare (barley) Available as a colorless or yellowish or nearly odorless known for anti-acne properties syrupy liquid It is miscible with water, alcohol and ether Sebacic acid Consist of lactic acid that has the total of NLT 85% and derived from fats and oils, Ricinus communis (castor oil) NMT 90% by wt. of lactic acid used in cosmetics Can be obtained by the lactic fermentation of sugars or is Malic acid prepared synthetically Can be used as an acidulant, especially in infant feeding chemical name: 2-Hydroxybutanedioic acid formulas chemical formula: C4H6O5 There are also products that are available in the market organic compound naturally found in fruits, such as apples which contains this lactic acid :  often taken as a supplement especially in the treatment of dicarboxylic acids fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome known for its ability to increase energy and tolerance to Oh - Oxalic exercise My - Malonic contributes to the sourness of the green apples. also present in grapes and gives tart taste in wine Such - Succinic when added to food products, malic acid is the source of extreme tartness Good - Glutaric used with/in place of the less sour citric acid to make sours Apple - Adipic sweet obtained from the ripe fruit of Prunus cerasus from the Pie - Pimelic family of rosaceae Sweet - Suberic cherry juice contains NLT 1% of malic acid As - Azelaic Tartaric acid Sugar - Sebacic Chemical name: diHydroxybutane dioic acid Alcohol or ethanol Formula: C4H6O6 a liquid containing not less than 92.3% by weight, Obtained as a byproduct of the wine industry corresponding to 94.9% by volume of ethanol at 15.56 Dicarboxylic acid C Substitute for citric acid in buffer systems and in there are a lot of products in the market that contains effervescent formulations alcohol: Ferrous fumarate (fumaric acid) o brandy = from wine, 60-70% alcohol o whisky = from fermented malted grain, same w brandy there are products in the market that is related to this o rum = from fermented molasses, same fumarate which is the ferrous fumarate o beer- contains 4-11% of alcohol by volume in our body, we are capable of producing fumarate o wine (either red, white, rose, or sparkling) - contains in the citric acid cycle, this fumarate is an intermediate that 7-14% of alcohol by vol is used by the cells to produce energy in the form of an o vodka – 45 – 50% ATP (adenosine triphosphate) fortified wines - contains 18-21% of alcohol by vol this is formed by the oxidation of succinate by the enzyme fortified wine - a wine to which a distilled spirit (a brandy) is usually added succinate dehydrogenase this fumarate is then converted by the enzyme fumarase Sugar Alcohols into malate Mannitol or D-mannitol the body is also capable to produce fumaric acid a hexahydric alcohol fumaric acid is produced by the skin when you are laxative exposed to sunlight used as diagnostic aid and as an osmotic diuretic fumaric acid has been used as a food acidulant since obtained by the reduction of mannose or by the isolation 1946 from manna or from Fraxinus ornus Linne fumarate is also a byproduct of the urea cycle (fam:oleaceae) manna contains 50-60% of mannitol; manna has laxative fumaric acid can be found in fumitory or Fumaria officinalis properties or can also be found in some mushrooms and in iceland characteristics: a white crystalline powder that is odorless moss and has sweet taste there are products related to this fumarate and this is ferrous fumarate Sorbitol or D-glucitol (another sugar alcohol) a hexitol ferrous fumarate is anti-anemic drug comparable to the obtained from the ripe berries of mountain ash, ferrous glutamate Sorbus aucuparia (fam: rosaceae) occurs in many fruit but is generally prepared from glucose by dehydrogenation or by electrolytic reduction a well known hexahydrate sugar alcohol that has received wide acceptance in pharmaceutic and commercial fields used for its humectant properties  - it tastes sweet but unlike sugar, it is not converted into not absorbed on oral ingestion and this is not malto acid that causes tooth decay (it reduces levels metabolized readily of decay causing bacteria in saliva and also acts against some bacteria that cause ear infection) these properties made the sorbitol particularly a useful ingredient in the making of toothpaste, chewing gums, and dietetic products) can also be used in conjunction with the saccharine or some other non-caloric sweetener in dietetic beverages because it acts as an osmotic laxative when taken in large amounts sorbitol + mannitol = used for urologic irrigation taste approximately half as sweet as sucrose sorbitol byproduct of polyol pathway Half as sweet as sucrose Polyol pathway aka sorbitol Aldose reductase pathway starts with glucose Glucose Reduced by aldose reductase Oxidation of NADPH to NADP Byproduct is sorbitol Sorbitol is oxidized by sorbitol dehydrogenase to fructose NAD reduced to NADH Alternative for glucose metabolism Galactitol from galactose contributes to Cataract formation which is associated with galactosemia galactosemia= accumulation of galactose in the sugar (check galactose) galactosemia - leading to certain damages into your body (brain damage, damage to the eyes, jaundice, kidney and liver damage) Xylitol chewing gums (or candies) contains xylitol a naturally occurring alcohol that is found in most plants (including many fruits and vegetables) it is extracted from a birch wood to make medicine widely used as a sugar substitute and in sugar free chewing gums, mints and other candies however, sorbitol is more commonly used as a sweetener in sugarless gums because it is considered to be less expensive compared to xylitol and at the same time, sorbitol is easier to make into commercial products - people use xylitol to prevent cavities, it is also used to prevent tooth plaque and ear infection (otitis media) - with regards to its uses, there are no scientific evidence to support its use and effect