Carbohydrates PDF

Table of Contents 1. Total Carbohydrates Simple carbohydrates (sugars)...

Table of Contents 1. Total Carbohydrates Simple carbohydrates (sugars) Hydrogenated carbohydrates (polyols) Complex Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) Starch Resistant starch CARBOHYDRATES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE FOR NUTRITION Modified starch Glycogen Fiber Soluble fiber and insoluble fiber Assoc. Prof. Dr. Şebnem Şimşek Effects of fiber on health 2. Carbohydrates as Source of Energy 3. Digestion of Carbohydrates (From Carbohydrate to Glucose) Lactose intolerance Regulation of blood glucose level Glycemic index of foods (GI) and Glycemic Load (GL) 2024 4. Recommendations for Carbohydrate Intake 5. Carbohydrate Substitutes Carbohydrates can be classified according to their degree of polymerization; primarily simple sugars, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Class Subgroup Components Simple carbohydrates (1-2) Monosaccharides Glucose, fructose, galactose Disaccharides Maltose, sucrose, lactose Oligosaccharides or short Malto-oligosaccharides Maltodextrins chain carbohydrates (3-9) Other oligosaccharides Rafinose, fructooligosaccharides (FOS), galactooligosaccharides (GOS) Polysaccharides (≥10) Starch, glycogen Amylose, amylopectin, modified starch Dietary fiber (polysaccharides Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, other than starch, undigestible hydrocolloids, β-glucan, gums Whether you are studying for an exam or dreaming about your next vacation, your polysaccharides of cell wall) brain needs carbohydrate to power its activities. Your muscles need carbohydrate Hydrogenated carbohydrates Polyoles Sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, isomalt, to fuel their work, whether you are racing up the stairs or dancing. lactitol, maltitol, hydrogenated starch hydrolysates, polydextroses  A further classification of carbohydrates is based on their potential effects on health and their nutritional and physiological properties. Total Carbohydrates Physiological properties of carbohydrates in food Two basic approaches are used to calculate the total amount of carbohydrates in food. Provide Increse Glycemica Cholestrol Increase SCFAb Prebiotic In the first method, the carbohydrates are determined by the "difference" method". In this Energy Satiety reduction calcium source effect method, the quantity of carbohydrates is determined by subtracting the measured quantities absorption of components other than carbohydrates from 100. Monosaccharides + + Total carbohydrates = 100 – (Moisture + Ash + Protein + Fat) Disaccharides + + Polyoles + +c However, this difference may include some non-carbohydrate products, such as lignin, organic Oligosaccharides + + + + acids, tannins, gums and some Maillard reaction products. In addition to this error, some analytical Starch + + +d +d errors resulting from other analyses may increase the error. Non-starch + + +e + + polysaccharides In the second method, the quantity of all components that make up the structure of carbohydrates (simple sugars, starch, fiber, etc.) is determined individually. aProvides carbohydrates for metabolism, b Short chain fatty acids, c Except erythrol, d Only resistant starch , e Only some forms Simple Carbohydrates (Sugars) The term “sugar" or “simple sugar” is generally used for monosaccharides and disaccharides that occur naturally in food. Hydrogenated carbohydrates (Polyols): Glucose and fructose are simple sugars that occur naturally in honey and fruit. Corn syrup is a glucose syrup obtained by hydrolysis of corn starch. Simple sugars are divided into 2 groups: Polyols are sugar-like compounds that can be extracted from fruit or commercially produced from glucose. They occur naturally and/or are produced commercially from the aldehyde group of 1. Monosaccharides; glucose, fructose and galactose glucose using the enzyme aldose reductase. Examples include sorbitol, xylitol, mannitol, maltitol 2. Disaccharides; and erythritol, which are used in numerous products due to their different physiological effects, Sucrose = glucose + fructose their low energy content and their low glycemic effect. Maltose = glucose + glucose Lactose = glucose + galactose Complex Carbohydrates (Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides) The term complex carbohydrates includes starch, fiber and non-digestible oligosaccharides. Starch A comprehensive understanding of carbohydrates was created in 1929 by McCance and Lawrence by categorising them into two groups, the available and the unavailable. The researchers recognised that Plant cells store glucose as starch — long, branched or unbranched chains of hundreds or thousands not all carbohydrates can be metabolised and used by the body when preparing a diabetic preparation. of glucose molecules linked together. These huge starch molecules are arranged side by side in While useful carbohydrates are defined as "starches and soluble sugars", the non-usable ones are grains such as wheat or rice, in root and tuber crops such as yams and potatoes, and in pulses such basically defined as "hemicellulose and dietary fiber (cellulose)". However, this opinion was abandoned as peas and beans. because some carbohydrates identified as available are not digested and it lost its properties when Starch consists of 2 components: Amylose, a linear polysaccharide, and amylopectin, a branched some useful carbohydrates reached the colon without being absorbed by the intestine. It was also polysaccharide. Both forms of starch are polymers of α-D-glucose. recognised that some carbohydrates that reach the large intestine are used as substrates by the This structure is broken down by various amylase enzymes in the body. At the end of intestinal flora. defragmentation, the released glucose is absorbed from the small intestine and enters the A more appropriate approach to defining carbohydrates than the terms available and unavailable has bloodstream for its metabolic functions. been divided into glycemic foods (which provide carbohydrate to the metabolism) and non-glycemic foods. Although the end product of the breakdown of sucrose is glucose, it is not advisable to cover the need for carbohydrates with sucrose. This is important in two respects: AMYLOPECTIN AMYLOSE Branched molecules 1. Starch is a large molecule and therefore takes longer to be broken down into glucose. However, if (10000-1000000 glucose Lineer molecules (200-20000 glucose units) units) the same amount of sucrose is consumed, the glucose is released quickly and in a much shorter time. So when starch is consumed, it gives time to the hormone insulin, which is responsible for regulating blood sugar levels. The behaviour of carbohydrates in food after they have been absorbed into the body is known as the glycemic index. 2. Starchy foods also contain proteins, minerals and vitamins. In a balanced diet, the consumption of starchy foods is therefore better than the consumption of sugar. However, sucrose is not the only form of basic sugar. Fruits also contain large amounts of sucrose and fructose as monosaccharides, but no starch and can cover the carbohydrate requirement in relation to the amount consumed. Resistant starch (RS) In the last 40 years, the most important research on the significant effects of carbohydrates on health has been the discovery of resistant starch. While it is known that the α-glycosidic bonds contained in starch can be broken down and completely hydrolysed by enzymes in the digestive system, it has been found that there is also an indigestible form of starch that resists digestion in the small intestine. Starch is categorised into rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) depending on the speed and extent of digestion (Englyst, Kingman, & Cummings, 1992). Rapidly digestible starch is the starch fraction that causes a rise in blood glucose levels immediately after ingestion, while SDS is the starch fraction that is digested more slowly and completely in the small intestine compared to RDS. Resistant starch (RS) is the part of the starch and/or starch hydrolysis products that escapes digestion in the small intestine and enters the large intestine for fermentation. Rapidly digestible starch (RDS): Freshly cooked starchy foods, bread, potatoes, etc. Slowly digestible starch (SDS): Most cereal foods Resistant starch (RS) (Bojarczuk et al., 2022) Resistant starch occurs naturally in food and can also be produced by processing at home and/or in a factory. When two or more amylose molecules approach each other during cooling, the glucose units It is known that native starch is present in relatively organised granular structures. When heated in combine due to the hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyl groups or physical forces of the presence of water, the starch granules undergo an irreversible structural change known as attraction and form an insoluble crystal structure. These crystals are resistant to hydrolysis by gelatinisation, resulting in an amorphous macromolecular structure. The gelatinisation of starch has very important effects on the texture of food, as it is associated with the formation of a viscous gel in enzymes. Depending on the crystal structure or other properties of the starch in the food which the starch molecules have a disordered conformation and a relatively high molecular mobility. The consumed, they resist the enzymes in the intestine and act like dietary fibre, which is not open and flexible molecular conformation of gelatinised starch makes it accessible to amylases, which leads to the release of glucose. It is produced by thermal processes such as blanching, cooking and absorbed. These effects have a positive influence on health: synthesis of short-chain fatty autoclaving. acids, bacterial growth, regulation of epithelial cells and nitrogen metabolism. Retrogradation, which occurs when the starch gel is cooled, makes the amylose fraction irreversibly insoluble. The retogradation of amylopectin molecules is very slow and difficult. The branched structure of amylopectin allows these molecules to interact with each other or with amylose molecules and prevents them from coming together. The retrogradation of amylose is the most important factor influencing the formation of the RS form.  Glycogen Modified Starch The ratio of amylose and amylopectin in a starchy food varies. These ratios can be altered by While the long-chain storage form of glucose in plants is the growing conditions of the plant. Genetic engineering can be used to produce maize starch called starch, the storage form in the animal and human body with a high amylose and amylopectin content, which has an effect on its nutritional and is called glycogen. A glycogen molecule contains hundreds of functional properties. Starches with a high amylose content tend to be more retrograde and glucose units in highly branched chains. There is no glycogen form amylose-lipid complexes, while they can be gelatinised at high temperatures. Due to these in plant tissue. It is no longer detectable in animal tissue. properties, they can be selected for the development of foods with a low glycaemic index After the animal has been slaughtered, it is quickly and/or with a high resistant starch content. destroyed. In the human body, it is stored in the liver. Physical modification of starch includes pre-gelatinisation and partial hydrolysis However, glycogen fulfils an important task in the body: it (dextrinisation) of starch. Chemical modification is achieved in particular by binding the cross- stores glucose for later use. However, this storage capacity is section of the side groups and by oxidation. These modifications reduce viscosity and improve limited. When the storage capacity is exhausted, excess gel stability, mouthfeel, appearance and texture as well as resistance to thermal applications. glucose turns into fat and is stored as fat. The use of modified starches as fat substitutes is also an important area. Some types are also resistant to digestion. Modified starches are used in virtually all starch applications, e.g. in foods as thickeners, stabilisers or emulsifiers. Fiber Fibers are non-starchy carbohydrates that occur naturally in plant foods, especially in the husks, which are known as bran in cereals. They cannot be digested in the metabolism, but have positive effects on health. Fibers that are mainly found in plant foods include cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, gums and mucilage. In recent years, two types of terms have been used: dietary fibers and functional fibers.  Oat and wheat bran, pulses, cereals, fruit and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Functional fibers: These are indigestible carbohydrates and connective tissues that are extracted  Humans have no enzymes that can break down fiber. For this reason, the fiber in the structure from foods or produced commercially. These types of fibers are used to enrich foods or to produce of plants passes through the stomach and small intestine without being digested and enters the fiber tablets. Psyllum and pectin are examples of this type of fiber. Functional fibers can also be large intestine. Once they have reached the large intestine, they have positive effects on health. contained in foods and are then referred to as dietary fibers. However, these positive effects vary depending on whether they are soluble or insoluble. Dietary fiber: This is the type of fiber that is consumed as a natural component of food. Oats, wheat bran, fruit, vegetables and pulses are high foods. When you eat high fiber foods, they contain vitamins, minerals and phenolic compounds in addition to fiber. This type of consumption is more beneficial than fiber tablets or supplements.  Characteristics, Sources, and Health Effects of Fibers Soluble fiber and insoluble fiber Vegetable husks, pulses, nuts, wheat bran and oat bran are a good source of insoluble fiber. Thank you to their high water-binding capacity, they swell up by retaining water and increasing the intestinal volume. Insoluble fiber has an effect on fermentation and intestinal movements in the large intestine. Due to this effect, faeces are excreted quickly and effectively from the large intestine. The shortening of this time means that many chemical, toxic and mutagenic substances in faeces are excreted quickly and the reduced contact with intestinal cells reduces the risk of diseases such as cancer. Soluble fiber is also important for a healthy digestive system. They are found in fruits such as peas, some pulses, oats, barley and rye. They dissolve in water and form a gel that slows down the movement of food through the small intestine, and gives our body time to absorb the nutrients. At the same time, it also takes on the task of binding and removing substances such as cholesterol. It is effective in the absorption of lipids and glucose from the small intestine. How does dietary fiber affect health? 1. They reduce the risk of diabetes (type 2 diabetes) by regulating glucose and insulin Carbohydrates as a source of energy metabolism. 2. It helps to remove many carcinogenic substances from the body by ensuring that faeces are The main function of carbohydrates in the body is to supply the cells with glucose for energy. eliminated from the large intestine as quickly as possible. Carbohydrates provide 4 kcal/g (17 kJ/g) of energy. However, some carbohydrates are not or only 3. It provides weight control by using alternative foods instead of fatty and sugary foods while partially digested in the small intestine and are converted into short-chain fatty acids in the large reducing energy requirements. intestine. These include indigestible oligosaccharides, resistant starch and non-starch 4. It reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease in several ways. Soluble fiber lowers blood polysaccharides. Fermentation in the large intestine is not an efficient process and provides less cholesterol levels by delaying absorption in the intestine. In addition, soluble fiber is digested by energy. Various studies have shown that the acceptable energy for carbohydrates reaching the bacteria in the large intestine and produces fat-like products. These substances reduce LDL large intestine is 2 kcal/g (8 kJ/g). This value is 2.4 kcal/g (10 kJ/g) for polyols and 3 kcal/g (13 (bad cholesterol). kJ/g) for organic acids.is. 5. The swelling of fiber through the absorption of water causes a feeling of fullness in the stomach. Soluble fiber as part of a meal also slows down the movement of food through the digestive tract, making you feel fuller for longer. 6. Fiber keeps the intestinal contents soft and easy to excrete, which prevents constipation. It prevents the occurrence of haemorrhoids and other intestinal diseases. 7. By the same mechanism, it prevents the development of appendicitis. 8. Formation of diverticula on the outer wall of the colon in weakened areas It prevents and protects against diverticulosis.  Digestion of carbohydrates Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with the action of the enzyme amylase in saliva, which breaks down the α-amylose of starch. The fractions of starch that are broken down in this way are maltose, dextrins, which contain the 1,6-α-glycosidic branches of amylopectin, and glucose. Starch is further broken down by pancreatic amylase, which is active in the small intestine. The small intestine Carbohydrate performs most of the work involved in carbohydrate digestion. An important carbohydrate-digesting digestion in the enzyme, pancreatic amylase, enters the intestine via the pancreatic duct and further breaks down gastrointestinal (GI) the polysaccharides into shorter glucose chains and maltose. tract The final step takes place on the outer membranes of the intestinal cells. There, specific enzymes break down certain disaccharides. The end products of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharides. When glucose, galactose and fructose enter the bloodstream as monosaccharides, galactose and fructose go to the liver, where enzymes convert them into glucose. This additional glucose in the bloodstream causes an increase in blood sugar levels. As fructose and galactose are converted into glucose in the liver, they cause a smaller and slower rise in blood glucose levels compared to glucose itself. The rate at which blood glucose levels rise after a meal and the rate at which it enters the bloodstream depend on the extent of carbohydrate hydrolysis, the diffusion of hydrolysis products into the small intestine and the rate of absorption. Regulation of the blood glucose level Lactose intolerance (absorption): Every cell in the body has a function that is more or less dependent on glucose. The cells of the Lactose is a disaccharide formed by the binding of glucose and galactose via β-bonds. Lactose, the brain and nervous system exclusively require glucose as an energy source. A constant and normal main sugar in milk, is also the only carbohydrate of animal origin. Lactase is present in the epithelial blood glucose level (70–120 mg/100 ml) is required to meet the needs of all cells. Blood glucose cells of the small intestine of infants at birth. However, after weaning, it decreases over time and levels are regulated by insulin and glucagon hormones secreted by the pancreas. The blood glucose therefore has low activity in many Caucasians. They are an exceptional group with high lactase level is regulated in 5 stages. activity throughout their lives. Lactose intolerance, which is due to a lack of lactase enzyme, leads 1. The rise in glucose levels in the blood after digestion stimulates the pancreas to release insulin. to clinical symptoms such as abdominal pain, flatulence and diarrhoea that occur after eating foods 2. Insulin ensures the uptake of glucose into the cells. Liver and muscle cells store glucose as containing lactose. It is particularly common among indigenous peoples living in Africa. glycogen. However, milk has a high nutritional value as a source of protein, riboflavin and calcium, and it is not 3. The liver cells also convert excess glucose into fat and release it into the bloodstream. right to restrict milk consumption for people with lactose intolerance. In addition, laboratory Fat cells collect and store fat. studies show that 1 cup of milk contains about 6 g of lactose and that 1/2 cup of milk can be 4. If the glucose level in the blood falls below the limit, the pancreas releases the hormone tolerated by people with lactose intolerance. Instead of milk, dairy products such as yoghurt contain glucagon into the blood. a lower lactose content and some enzymes and microorganisms that can help digest lactose. Cheese 5. Glucagon stimulates the liver cells to break down glycogen and release the resulting glucose into contains almost no lactose. the blood. However, only the glycogen in the liver cells is used to provide glucose, while the glycogen stores in the muscles do not contribute to the blood glucose level.  Maintaning blood glucose homestasis A balanced and adequate diet is the most important factor in regulating blood glucose levels. If blood glucose levels cannot be regulated, hypoglycaemia and/or diabetes may develop. Hypoglycaemia: Sudden drop in blood glucose levels and rapid heartbeat, sweating, anxiety, hunger, seizures, symptoms such as sweating, weakness and hunger. Diabetes: Lack of sufficient and effective insulin hormones to lower blood glucose levels to a normal level. There are two types. Type 1 diabetes is the rarer form of diabetes in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin. Type 1 diabetes is usually the result of autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes is the more common type of diabetes in which the cells do not respond to insulin. Type 2 diabetes is usually associated with obesity and is the result of insulin resistance combined with insufficient insulin secretion. Researchers classify foods with a high, medium and low glycaemic index as good, better and the best choice for the diet. According to this approach, foods are Glycemic response (GR) and Glycemic Load (GY) of Foods categorised as follows: Available carbohydrates are the amount of carbohydrates in food that can be released in the intestine  Food s with low GI (GI ≤ 55), after digestion, absorbed as monosaccharides and metabolised in the body. The glycaemic response  Foods with medium GI (56 < GI < 69) refers to how quickly glucose is absorbed after eating, how high the blood glucose level rises and how and quickly it normalises again. Slow absorption, a moderate rise in blood glucose levels and a smooth return  Foods with high GI (GI ≥ 70). to normal are desirable (a low glycaemic response). The glycaemic index (GI) is a scale introduced to compare carbohydrate-rich foods on the basis of their Glucose (GI = 100) was used as the glycaemic response. The GI of a food is measured in vivo based on the area under the curve of reference material for this numerical postprandial glucose after ingestion of a carbohydrate-rich food containing 50 g of digestible classification. carbohydrate compared to the same curve after ingestion of 50 g of glucose. The GI is then expressed as a percentage of this ratio. Low GI foods lead to a more gradual rise in blood glucose and insulin levels due to the slow digestion and absorption of their carbohydrates, and are therefore associated with a lower incidence and prevalence of diabetes, heart disease and some cancers. The term glycemic load (GL) assesses the glycemic index of a food based on portion size. Watermelon, for instance, has a high glycemic index, making it unsuitable for low-glycemic index diets. Nevertheless, given that 100 grams of watermelon contains only 6 grams of carbohydrates, its glycemic load is low when considered portion by portion." GL = GI/100 * amount of carbohydrate (g), Which factors influence the GI of a food? Example: carrot (1 medium sized) - Digestibility of starch in food GL = 45/100*8 g= 3.6 g - Interaction of starch and protein in food - Fat, sugar and fiber content of foods - Molecules that bind starch in food Food GI Portion Available GL - Form of food; dry, liquid, coarsely ground, finely ground, cooked carbohydrate - Other foods that are consumed at the same time Watermelon 72 120 6 4 Icecream 37 50 9 4 Potato 74 150 20 15 Pasta 47 180 48 23 Rice 64 150 36 23 Chocolate 65 60 40 26 Foods with a low GI value are the preferred choice for a healthy diet. They are How can you reduce the high glycemic load? digested and absorbed slowly and cause a slower and lower rise in blood glucose levels (low glycaemic response).  Choose foods with a low GI and/or formulate and/or choose the best processing method A high GI meal produces a higher blood sugar response than a low GI meal: to ensure a low GI, A diet with high GI foods has been shown to increase the risk of obesity, type 2  Increase consumption of whole grains (unrefined), pulses, nuts, fruit and non-starchy diabetes, impaired glucose uptake and insulin resistance. vegetables, High blood glucose levels after meals are not only a risk factor for diabetics, but also  Reduce the consumption of starchy foods with a high GI, such as potatoes, rice and white for people with normal fasting blood glucose levels. Therefore, even healthy people should take special precautions to avoid hyperglycaemia. bread,  Reduce the consumption of sugary drinks, cakes, biscuits and sweets. Recommendations for carbohydrate intake Key recommendations: It is recommended to cover 55-65% of the daily energy intake from carbohydrates. 1 g of carbohydrates provides the body with 4 kcal of energy. A fixed and regular amount of 1. Intake of complex carbohydrates carbohydrates in the diet is important to meet energy needs with glucose. Glucose is the fuel for Daily requirement: 300 g or 55-60% of the daily energy requirement should be the work of most body cells and the preferred energy source for brain cells, other nerve cells covered by carbohydrates. and developing red blood cells. If energy comes only from fats in the diet, the functions of these 5 to 9 portions of fruit or vegetables per day cells are impaired. The consumption of 6 to 11 portions of bread, grains and legumes is appropriate. If the required amount of carbohydrate is not consumed in the diet, the amino acids in proteins can be used to some extent to produce glucose, but amino acids and proteins have their own roles 2. Intake of refined sugars that no other nutrient can fulfil. However, if a person does not replenish glucose by eating A maximum 10% of your daily energy requirement should come from refined carbohydrates, body proteins are broken down to make glucose for the brain and other sugar. specialised cells. In this case, however, the proteins cannot fulfil their tasks such as hormone and enzyme synthesis in the body. Only a sufficient supply of carbohydrates can prevent this 3. Dietary fiber intake utilisation of proteins for energy production. This role of carbohydrates is known as the 25 g or 11.5 g / 1000 calories per day protein-sparing action of carbohydrates. Artificial Sweeteners Carbohydrate Substitutes Artificial sweeteners are used in the food industry to reduce the energy content of foods and drinks and to protect dental health. When consumed in excess, they can have toxic effects. In food production, substitutes can be used instead of carbohydrates in recipes to reduce Aspartame is a dipeptide consisting of phenylalanine and aspartic acid. the energy value or to achieve a positive effect on dental health. The main aim of replacing carbohydrates is to reduce the energy value without losing sweetness. This can be done in two ways: 1. The sweetener carbohydrate (sugar) can be replaced with a carbohydrate that provides Sugar alternative Energy Sweetness according a similar sweetness with a lower energy value. (kcal/g) to sucrose (Sucrose=100) 2. The carbohydrate (sugar) sweetener can be replaced by a carbohydrate and a bulking Cyclamat 0 1500-2000 agent that provide a similar sweetness with a lower energy value. Aspartame 4 15000-20000 Sugar can be replaced by an intense sweetener to reduce the energy value of liquid foods. Acesulfame-K 4 20000 For products that are not entirely water phase, such as cakes and biscuits, the gap Saccharin 0 24000-50000 created by the reduction in sugar can be replaced by a bulking agent in terms of volume and weight. Low Molecular Weight Bulking Agents High Molecular Weight Bulking Agents The simplest sugar substitutes in this category are polyols. Polyols are hydrogenated forms of simple sugars. They are also called sugar alcohols. Sugar alcohols occur naturally in fruit and vegetables and Indigestible complex carbohydrates, known as dietary fiber, can also be classified as low-calorie are obtained industrially by hydrogenating sugars. The sugar alcohols obtained in this way are more bulking agents. Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gum, mucilage and lignin belong to this category. hygroscopic and less prone to crystallisation. Their biological availability is low and a large proportion These substances are highly complex carbohydrate polymers. of them are excreted directly via the large intestine. Substance Energy Sweetness Absorption rate (kcal/g) according to (%) Polysaccharide General properties Applications sucrose (Sucrose=100) Agarose Gel forming, Bakery products, Alginate stabilizer, water dairy products, Sorbitol 1,80-3.30 70 50 Carragenan binding, bulking, desserts, meat Mannitol 1.6 50 25 Cellulose complex with proteins, analogs, salad Maltitol 2.8-3.5 75 40 Galactomammans dressing, jams, meat Guar gum products,ice cream, Xylitol 2.4 90 25 Locus bean gum sauces Lactitol 2.00 40 Min. D-glucan Isomalt 2.00 60 20 Pectin Polydextrose Fructo- 2.00 30 - Xanthan gum oligosachharides Polydextrose 1.00 - 25 References El, S. N. 2020. Gıda Bileşenlerinin Beslenme Açısından Önemi, Ege Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Gıda Mühendisliği Bölümü Öğrencileri İçin Hazırlanmış Beslenme Ders Notu, İzmir. Whitney, E., and Rolfes, S. R. 2016. Understanding Nutrition, 14th Edition, Stamforth, USA.