Animal Genetics and Breeding in Animal Production PDF

## F. Pigeons Pigeons can be classified into 3 major categories: 1. exhibition - show pigeons 2. performance - tumblers/aerial acrobats and homing pigeons 3. meat production - squabbing pigeons. The latter is of most economic importance. ### Squabbing Breeds 1. **Large Breeds (750 - 950g, mature...

## F. Pigeons Pigeons can be classified into 3 major categories: 1. exhibition - show pigeons 2. performance - tumblers/aerial acrobats and homing pigeons 3. meat production - squabbing pigeons. The latter is of most economic importance. ### Squabbing Breeds 1. **Large Breeds (750 - 950g, mature)** - American Swiss Mondane - White King - Silver King - Auto-sexing King - Auto-sexing Texan Pioneer 2. **Medium-Sized Breeds (650-750g, mature)** - Red or White Cameaux - Giant Homer 3. **Small Breeds (650g below, mature)** - Hungarian (Blue, Black or Red) - Squabbing Homer (Working Homer) ## G. Rabbits 1. **Meat Breeds** - American Chinchilla - fur and meaty rabbit, grayish (chinchilla) with blue undercolor - Califonian - white body with dark gray or black ears, nose, tail and feet - Champagne d'Argent (French Silver) - Checkered Giant - white with black markings down the back, sides, and in circles around eyes - Flemish Giant - largest of the domestic rabbits (more than 6 kg BW) - English Spot - Dutch - Himalayan - Satin - noted for vivid color and a sleek coat - New Zealand - most popular medium breed for meat and fur 2. **Fur Breeds** - Angora - for mohair production - Rex - has a desirable plush-velvet, soft, silky feel fur which lacks the stiff guard hairs in rabbits ## Fundamentals of Genetics and Breeding in Animal Production Improving animal productive efficiency and animal product quality can be realized immediately but in a shorter through understanding and proper application of animal nutrition, reproduction, physiology, disease control, management, marketing and others. For a longer and lasting term of improvement, aspects of animal genetics and breeding should be understood and property applied to attain the genetic improvement, which all animal breeders consider as their principal goal. Genetics is the biology of heredity and variation, that mainly deals with the way in which traits of the parents are passed on or transmitted to their offspring. Breeding is a branch of genetics, which is concerned with the proper selection and use of the traits of the parents to produce offspring with predictable and desirable traits for the improvement of animals in general, Farm animals today are much better than they were say a hundred years ago in terms of production. They grow better, they produce more meat, milk, eggs, wool and other products with less feeding. Much of this progress and development in animal production efficiency can be attributed to proper selection methods and good breeding programs that are based on principles of genetics. In order to understand further the importance of genetics and breeding in animal production, the student must be able to answer the following: What constitute traits or characters? What is/are responsible for their expression? How are they expressed, inherited and transmitted? What could affect or influence their expression? What are the factors for improvement by selection? Define genetic variation, heritability, genetic improvement, inbreeding and crossbreeding. ### The basis of traits and inheritance Animal traits or characters be it morphological (e.g. size, coat color), productive performance (e.g. egg and meat production), behavioral or any visible and measurable innate descriptions are somewhat due to or somehow products of functional units of inheritance called genes. Chemically, genes consist mostly of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that is the genetic material for all living organisms. They occupy specific location (locus) in chromosomes (chromatin material) that occur in pairs (and so do genes) in somatic cells (in diploid number, 2n) so as to be expressed or to become a product as trait. The specific positions (loci) of genes in the chromosomes make it possible to occur same thing to genes to whatever happens to chromosomes during cell division. | SPECIES | Number (2n) | |-------------------|-------------| | Turkey | 82 | | Ducks | 80 | | Chicken | 78 | | Dog | 78 | | Camel | 74 | | Horse | 64 | | Donkey | 62 | | Cattle | 60 | | Goat | 60 | | Sheep | 54 | | River Buffalo | 50 | | Swamp Buffalo | 48 | | Human | 46 | | Rabbit | 44 | | Rat (Rattus) | 42 | | Mouse (Mus) | 40 | | Pig | 40 | | Cat | 38 | One member of each pair of chromosome (allele, if gene) is inherited from each parent (sire and dam) through their gametes (sperm and ovum) in haploid number (n), segregated after undergoing reduction division (meiosis) during their development (spermatogenesis in testes and oogenesis in ovary). They will then recombine when the gametes unite to form the zygote during fertilization, and grows when its somatic cells replicate by mitosis. Genes carry the genetic information that is passed from parent cell to offspring/daughter cell during mitosis or replication of somatic or body cells for tissue maintenance and growth; and from one generation to the next, via meiosis, for gametogenesis, a situation where genes are segregated and can assort resulting to new individuals. Individual genes do not change during the process, but the combined number resulting to traits can, due to the segregation and assortment of genes. ### Example of Single Locus Inheritance: Consider mating heterozygote Bb and a homozygote bb. Results of mating can be predicted as what happen to the sex chromosomes during segregation at meiosis then fertilization; or using a checkerboard (Punnett Square): | | Bb | bb | |-------|------|------| | 1/2 B | 1/2 Bb | 1/2 bb | | 1/2 b | 1/2 Bb | 1/2 bb | The other segregation ratios expected: | Type of Mating | BB | Bb | bb | |-----------------|----|----|----| | BB X BB | 1 | 0 | 0 | | BB X Bb | 1 | 1 | 0 | | BB X bb | 0 | 1 | 0 | | Bb X Bb | 1 | 2 | 1 | | Bb X bb | 0 | 1 | 1 | | bb X bb | 0 | 0 | 1 | ### Example of Multilocus Inheritance: Assuming that segregation at 1 locus is independent of segregation at other loci. Such independent segregation usually occur in autosomal loci. Ex. inheritance involving two loci. If an individual is heterozygous at 2 loci (BbDd), there are 4 possible types of gametes: BD, Bd, Bd and bd. If that individual is mated to the same heterozygote, the results of independent segregation can again be predicted using the checkerboard: | | 1/4BD | 1/4Bd | 1/4Bd | 1/4bd | |----------|--------|--------|--------|--------| | 1/4 BD | BBDD | BBDd | BbDD | BbDd | | 1/4 Bd | BBDd | BBdd | BbDd | Bbdd | | 1/4 Bd | BbDD | BbDd | bbDD | bbDd | | 1/4 bd | BbDd | Bbdd | bbDd | bbdd | The segregation ratio: 1 BBDD: 2 BBDd: 1 BBdd: 2 BbDD: 4 BbDd: 2 Bbdd: 1 bbDD:2bbDd: 1 bbdd So you can predict the outcome of the matings of the following: - BBDD x bbdd - BBDD x BbDd - BbDd x bbDD - bbDd x BBDd and the other possible mating combinations. ### Gene Interaction/Gene Expression/Gene effect It is now apparent that due to segregation and assortment of genes, the cornbined alleles in a locus as well as the combination/interaction of all the genes present can result to new individuals or traits differing from the parental ones. In fact traits are influenced by one or more gene pairs, especially economically important traits are influenced by several gene pairs. ### Types of Gene Interactions/Gene Effects/Phenotypic Expression of Genes: #### A. Non-Additive or Qualitative Resultant phenotypic expressions are distinct traits or characters (discontinuous variations) e.g. coat color, horned or polled, tall or dwarf * **1. Complete Dominance** One allele mask the effect/action of the other in a locus. Ex. - A - dominant polled; AA - polled Aa - polled - a - recessive homed (cattle) aa - homed * **2. Incomplete or Partial Dominance** (also called no dominance or lack of dominance) - neither allele in a locus is dominant, the heterozygote offspring shows intermediate or blended phenotype. Ex. - L-long ears; 1-earless/no ear (sheep) - LL-long ears LI-short ears II - earless * **3. Overdominance** Heterozygous individuals are superior (possess greater vigor or are more desirable) to either homozygotes; and are said to possess heterosis or hybrid vigor. * **4. Codominance ** Two (both) alleles of a single locus are responsible for the production of two phenotypically distinct and detectable gene products. Ex. phenotypes of biochemical and protein markers as viewed by electrophoresis. #### B. Additive Gene Effects Type of gene interaction involving several pairs of genes affecting production traits (e.g. growth, milk production, rate of gain) in an additive manner (continuous variation). Ex. for rate of gain (ADG) several loci and alleles can be involved. - D = 100mg d = 50mg; N = 100mg n = 50mg - DDNN = 400mg ADG; DDNn or DdNN = 350mg; ddnn = 200mg #### C. Epistatic Interaction A gene or pair of gene which affect the expression of genes in other loci or chromosomes, not allelic. (epistasis). Ex. - colors) - B-black; b = chestnut; W = dominant white (horse basic colors) - BBWW, BBWw, BbWw, bbWw = white; BBww, Bbww = black; bbww = chestnut When allele Wis absent, other alleles can express normally. #### D. Inheritance of Sex and Sex-Linkage A pair of chromosomes in each normal body cell, called sex chromosomes, determines the sex of the zygote. In marnmals the genotype for female sex characteristic is XX (homogametic), while in male is XY (heterogametic). For poultry, it is the reverse, hence female is heterogametic (designated as ZW), and the male bird is homogametic (ZZ). At conception, there is a 50% chance for both X and Y genes to recombine, therefore sex is determined by chance. Traits influenced by genes found on the sex chromosomes are called sex-linked traits. ### Genotype, Phenotype and the Effect of Environment Traits are represented and identified/designated by genotype and phenotype. Genotype is the genetic make-up of the trait represented by the genes carried on the chromosomes. Phenotype is the visible or measurable character representing the genotype. Since we cannot see genotype we often consider this theoretical. Phenotype on the other hand may not always disclose information about the genotype. Ex. A black dominant animal may have genotype either BB or Bb. Also the environment determines the degree to which genes are expressed. Ex. Though the animal carries the dominant B gene, nutrition, climate, drugs, etc. may cause a change in coat color of the animal. We want to know as much as possible about the genotype of our breeding stock so that we can predict the results of our breeding programs. Environment often masks genotype or genetic potential. Heredity or genetic make-up (genotype) of an individual is determined at conception forming the zygote. Any influence exerted upon the animal following conception is considered environmental. Therefore genetic-up does not change once established or is not changed by environment - except rare occurrence of mutation. The environment may alter the traits (e.g. production performances), but not the genotype. And it is important to emphasize that these changes are not genetically transmitted to the offspring or next generation. Therefore the degree to which the phenotype represents the genotype is important factor in the genetic improvement through selection. ### Genetic Improvement by Selection Although we can make improvement in the performances (traits) of animals by improving the environment (proper feeding, housing, medication, etc.), but this will be limited by their genotypes when their genetic potentials have been met. If maximum improvement in the environment has been done, the only room for improvement now is through their genetic potential. Genetic improvement of livestock and poultry can be achieved usually by selection. However 4 factors or rules should be considered for an effective improvement. 1. **Genetic variation** - have a maximum differences on traits due to genetics. Standardize environment, and differences in performance (phenotype) of the animals are largely due to their genotype. 2. **Selection of highly heritable traits** - spend selection efforts on traits largely influenced by heredity. These are the traits for which phenotype is a good indicator of geriotype. 3. **Accurate measurement and recording** - use effective methods for evaluating traits of prospect breeders and have a reliable records/data. 4. **Proper mating or breeding systems** - breed selected animals with the desirable traits using the right breeding methods and reproductive techniques. ### Mating Systems There are two general classifications of animal breeders, the purebred breeders (also called seedstock producers) and the commercial breeders (producers). Purebred livestock typically are from the purebreds for which their ancestry is recorded as a pedigree by a breed association. Commercial slaughter/market livestock are crossbreds resulting from crossing tow or more breeds or lines of breeding. Mating systems (or breeding systems) in combination with selection are utilized in most herds/flocks to optimize genetic improvement. Producers can take advantage of the genetic superiority and hybrid vigor of the animals from their knowledge of mating systems to maximize their production and profits. Mating systems are based primarily on the genetic relationship of animals being mated. The two major systems of matings are: Inbreeding, primarily geared towards the maintenance and preservation of genetic superiority; and outbreeding, to utilize hybrid vigor, breed complementation and stock improvement. * **I. Inbreeding** - mating of animals more closely related than the average of the breed or population, resulting to an increased homozygosity of gene pairs compared to noninbred animals in the same population (breed/herd). Generally defined as mating of relatives within a breed. - **A. Naing** - mating of closely related animals whose ancestors have been inbred for several generations. Ex. brother x sister - **B. Linebreeding** – a mild form of inbreeding where inbreeding is kept relatively low while maintaining a high genetic relationship to an outstanding ancestor (usually a sire) or line of ancestors. Ex. grandsire x granddaughter. * **II. Outbreeding** - mating of animals not as closely related as the average of the population. - **A. Species-Cross** - crossing of animals of different species (ex. horse x donkey = mule; cattle x bison = beefalo/cattalo) - **B. Crossbreeding** - mating of animals of different established breeds (e.g. Duroc x Yorkshire) - The two primary reasons for using crossbreeding: - **a. breed complementation** - crossing breeds so their strength and weaknesses complement one another, as there is no one breed superior in all desired production traits, and - **b. heterosis (hybrid vigor)** - **C. Outcrossing** - mating of unrelated animals within the same breed. - **D. Others - Grading Up** - mating of purebred sires to commercial grade females and their female offspring for several generations, and also to local/ native breeds. Grading up can involve crossbreeding and outcrossing systems. Its primary intent is to increase the frequency of genes from the introduced breed, and improve existing commercial and/or local/native breeds. - **Line or Strain cross** - crossing of 2 or more inbred lines or strains (families within a breed) such as in commercial poultry which are usually identified by a copyrighted name or number, and described to be extremely uniform in color, growth rate, mature size, egg production and carcass quality - achieved by using as parents those inbred lines/strains which have consistently demonstrated the traits. Reciprocal cross is obtained when mating of different lines are exchanged either male or female lines (Ex. first cross with line A as the male, then on 2nd with line B as the male). - **"Random mating"** - refers to systems opted by breeders wherein selected raumber of males are mated to selected number/group of females within a herd or flock. It doesn't imply mating without selection, but there is no controi in the mating of selected animals. Advantages are 1) practical for one who has no knowledge that certain controlled matings may produce better offspring, 2) less labor is required and 3) simple handling of the flock/herd during breeding season. ### Special Crossbreeding Programs 1. **3-Breed Rotational Cross.** [Image of diagram] 2. **Rotaterminal Cross System** [Image of diagram] ## Animal Nutrition ### Nutrients and their Basic Functions **Nutrient** - any feed constituent which may function in the nutritive support of animal life. **Concentrate** - any feed low (under about 20%) in crude fiber and high (over about 60%) TDN on an air-dry basis. Opposite of roughage. Also, a concentrated source of one or more nutrients used to enhance the nutritive adequacy of a supplement mix. **Roughage** - any feed high (over about 20%) in crude fiber and low (under about 60%) in TDN, on an air-dry basis. ### The Six Basic Classes of Nutrients: 1. **Water** - contains hydrogen and oxygen, also called moisture - found in all feeds ranging from 10% in air-dry feeds to 80% or more in fresh green forages - animals consume several times more water than dry matter each day and will die from lack of water more quickly than from lack of any other nutrient. - water in feeds is no more valuable than water from any other source. - basic body functions are: it enters into most of the metabolic reactions, assists in transporting other nutrients, helps maintain normal body temperature, and gives the body its physical shape (as a major component in the cell) 2. **Carbohydrates** - contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; supply major energy source for animals - **Monosaccharides** - glucose - fructose - galactose - **Disaccharides** - sucrose - maltose - lactose - **Polysaccharides** - starch - glycogen - hemicellulose - cellulose - lignin 3. **Fats** - fats and oils are also referred to as lipids - contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, although there is more C and H in proportion to O than with carbohydrates - contain 2.25 times more energy per unit than carbohydrates. - function as source of energy (for fats/oils), and precursor for substances like prostaglandins, structural components of cells (for fatty acids) 4. **Proteins** - contain C, H, O and N, and sometimes Fe, P or S, or both. - proteins in feeds, on average, contain 16% N - composed of various combinations of some 25 amino acids | ESSENTIAL | NON-ESSENTIAL | |-------------|-----------------| | arginine | alanine | | histidine | aspartic acid | | isoleucine | citrulline | | leucine | cystine | | lysine | glutamic acid | | methionine | glycine | | phenylalanine | hydroxyproline | | threonine | proline | | tryptophan | serine | | valine | tyrosine | - **Limiting Amino Acid (LAA)** - amino acid present in a protein/feed in the least amount in relation to the animal's need for that particular amino acid. (other essential amino acids can only be utilized by the animal towards meeting requirements, if that LAA is present) - **functions**: building blocks for growth, milk production, cell/tissue repair, metabolic reactions, enzyme and hormone functions, etc. 5. **Minerals** - chemical elements other than C,H,O and N, and are inorganic - **Macrominerals** - calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium and sulfur - **Trace/Microminerals** - cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium and zinc - **functions**: - Ca and P- for bone growth; - Na, K, CI- for osmotic relationship between plasma and RBC and acid-base balance; - trace minerals- essential parts of hormones, vitamins and other processes in the body. 6. **Vitamins** - organic substances required by animals in very small amounts for regulating various body processes toward normal health, growth, production and reproduction. - **Fat-soluble vitamins** - A, D, E and K - **Water-soluble vitamins** - ascorbic acid (C), -B-complex (biotin, choline, cyanocobalamine (B12), folic acid, niacin (B3), pantothenic acid, pyridoxine (B6), riboflavin (B2), and thiamine (B₁) ### The Three Basic Functions of Feed Nutrients: 1. As structural materials for building and maintaining the body structure. - proteins, minerals, fats and water 2. As sources of energy for heat production, work, and/or fat deposition. - carbohydrates, fats and proteins 3. As regulators of body processes/activities and as constituents of body-produced regulators. - vitamins, minerals, amino acids and fatty acids ### Proximate Analysis - system devised to approximate the value of a feed by separating feed components into nutritive fractions (water, crude protein, crude fat or ether extract, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract and ash or mineral matter). ## Types of Animal Production Operation or Systems of Animal Raising and Management Systems ### Cattle 1. **Beef Production** - **A. Cow-Calf Operation** - 1. Backyard cow-calf operation - 2. Extensive system (ranching) - 3. Integration into plantation agriculture - 4. Intensive system or commercial cow-calf program - 5. Breeder farm operation - 6. F-1 cattle program - 7. Registered program - **B. Feeder Cattle Production (Growing-Fattening Operation)** - 1. Feedlot fattening - 2. Extensive fattening (ranch fattening) - 3. Backyard fattening - 4. Stocker system - **C. Baby Beef Production** - **D. Veal Production** 2. **Dairy Operation** 3. **Dual- or Triple-Purpose Cattle Production** ### Domestic Buffalo (Water Buffalo) 1. **Draft, Dual- and Triple-Purpose Buffalo Production** - **A. Backyard operation** - **B. Ranch operation** 2. **Dairy buffalo commercial operation** 3. **Carabao fattening operation** ### Classes of Buffaloes Fattened for Market: 1. Retired work animals on account of old age, viciousness. 2. Feeder stocks about 2 1/2 to 3 years of age, homegrown or purchased in market 3. Carabao below 3 years old but not suited for breeding or work purposes ### Advantages of Carabao Feediot Fattening. 1. Fast turnvoer of capital. As fattening of animals may not take long. 2. Animals are less prone to diseases because of limited time spent on farm. 3. Profitable utilization of farm by-products generally going to waste 4. Housing for feeder stocks does not need big space/area 5. Management is relatively simple. ### Goat 1. Tethering 2. Extensive Goat Production 3. Intensive Goat Production 4. Integrated Into Plantation Agriculture ### Sheep 1. Purebred Breeder 2. Commercial Sheep for Meat Production - a. Slaughter Lamb Production - b. Feeder Lamb Production - c. Feedlot Operation 3. Commercial Wool Production ### Swine 1. Feeder Pig Production 2. Feeder Pig Finishing 3. Farrow-to-Finish 4. Purebred or Seedstock Operation ### Chicken 1. Chick Hatchery 2. Breeder Farm Operation 3. Broiler Operation - a. Integrated Growing - b. Independent Growing (Commercial Growing) - c. Contract-Growing - d. Contract-to-Buy 4. Layer Operation - a. Grow-Out Operation - b. Laying Operation - c. Grow-Lay Operation ## Animal Production Facilities (Housing and Equipment) Farm production facilities are important infrastructures and investments in livestock and poultry raising to facilitate proper management and ensure good health and efficient production. However they are commonly neglected and given less priority in animal farming, thus their maximum usefulness and benefits are seldom appreciated and more often not recognized. The common reasons for inappropriate or improper animal production facilities: 1. Lack of good knowledge / education about facilities for animal production. 2. Lack of emphasis in their importance / contributions / effects in animal raising. 3. Cost (building materials, equipment and labor are initially expensive). ### 10 Factors to Consider for the Appropriate Animal Farm Housing/Infrastrure 1. Type of animals to be raised (species, breed, age, purpose, etc.) 2. Scale and type of operation 3. Space requirement 4. Kind of equipment / facilities 5. farm location 6. Environmental requirements 7. Feed storage and handling 8. Amount of resources 9. Opportunities for expansion or development 10. Government laws and regulations that apply to animal production ### Types of building / housing: - grow-out, nursery unit, breeding, gestating, farrowing, milking barn, feed storage, multiple-site system with all-in all-out concept, feedlot shed, boar house ### Types of roofing design: - shed, gable, monitor (double gable), semi-monitor ### Roofing materials: - indigenous (nipa, cogon), G.I. sheets, aluminum, asbestos ### Types of flooring: - soiid-cemented, slat, litter, slat-litter ### Other facilities: - fence- for confining, controlling, managing animals for proper distribution (different ages, physiological condition, etc.), for pasture management, and for the safety and health of animals - other handling and miscellaneous herd facilities: working corral, race, squeeze chute, dipping vat, weighing facility, loading chute - feeding and drinking facilities: feeders, automated waterer, water tank, feed mill, mixers, environmental facilities: waste treatment-biogas facility, ventilators, humidifyers, air-conditioner, ## GENERAL AND SPECIAL ANIMAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ### Colostrum and Care of the Newborn **Colostrum** - the first milk secreted by the female mammal from the mammary gland the first 3-4 days after the delivery of her young. It is very rich in nutrients such as proteins, vitamin A, minerals needed for neonatal growth and survival and also antibodies to protect the newbom from pathogenic microorganisms, by providing passive immunity. It is important that all newborns must receive colostrum soon after birth. ### General Procedures and Considerations in Attending Newborn Mammals After Birth 1. Wipe dry, clear airways or remove mucous membranes covering mouth and nostrils and keep warm. 2. Massage gently the rib cage to stimulate C-V system and breathing. 3. Cut umbilical (navel) cord and dip in antiseptic solution (e.g. iodine/povidone solution) 4. Ensure suckling of colostrum 5. Other considerations (optional): cutting of needle "milk” teeth (piglets), mark for identification, dock tail, castration, vaccination, medications, etc. ### Brooding and Care of the Newly-Hatched **Brooding** - the caring for newly-hatched chicks by supplying heat providing protective confinement until the time they can already regulate normal body temperature (4-5 weeks). | Age (weeks) | Brooding Temperature (°C) | |--------------|--------------------------| | 0-1 | 32.2-35.0 | | 1-2 | 29.4-32.2 | | 2-4 | 26.7-29.4 | - Brooding by the hen (natural) may not need additional heat. Usually allowed to free-ranging with supplementary mash feeding with chick starter. Mortality rate of chicks is usually high. ### Artificial brooder Is an enclosed area for the chicks with a brooder lamp - incandecent bulb, gas or charcoal brooders to supply heat. It must be protected against other animals and must be located away from adult poultry houses or population. Use slightly moist floor litter to prevent chick dehydration. - Temperature can be estimated by observing chicks' behavior. (ex. 24°C for first week then 18-21°C as they perform better in cooler environment as long as there is a place they can go to get warm, with good ventilation). Unabsorbed yolk is common in overheating. - Continuous lighting for the first 48 hours encourages chicks to drink and eat. - Water (with 8% sugar) must be provided first for the first 12-24 hours before feed. (ex 1 kg sugar dissolved in 2.5 gallons of water). Water temperature must not be too extreme. - Fine cracked com/corn grits when first given or mixed with booster-starter feed have shown to reduce or prevent vent-pasting. - The is usually dry mash form given ad libitum (as they like) up to about 6 weeks. Clean fresh water must always be available. - Multivitamins/minerals may be given through the drinking water. Antibiotics/feed additives may also be given as needed. - For gamefowls, additional feeds given by some breeders: fresh fruits, hard-boiled egg with shell, uncooked oat meal, wheat germ meal, etc. ### Animal Identification and Keeping Herd/Flock Records Animal identification is the placing of numbers or symbols to animals to recognize/identify individuals, to denote ownership and for management purposes like record keeping. Proper ID of all animals is the basis of any complete recordkeeping and animal breeding-selection program. ### Common methods of animal I.D.: - branding, ear notching, ear tag, tattoo, wing/leg bands, hom brand, neck chain, nose points/imprints ### Importance of Record Keeping: Successful and profitable animal farming always aims for improvement of the breeding herd/flock. In any herd or flock, some individuals will perform better than others, while some will not. Some have history of having diseases you want to eliminate, some have exhibited estrus last month they are expected to be inseminated soon, some are old, some are young and some are ready for marketing, while some can become candidates as replacement breeders. Therefore, there are some individuals you might want to select to be maintained as breeders, while some are supposed to be culled because they are likely to spread undesirable traits, defects or diseases in your farm. However, if you lack the necessary data, records and identification of the animals, no way one can make an effective selection for the improvement of the whole herd or flock. ### Castration and Caponization Castration is the removal or permanent alteration of the testicles of male animals. **Advantages:** - prevent unnecessary breeding/mating - easy handling (more tractable) - meat quality ("boar taint" due to skatole and androsterone) **Disadvantage:** - less heavier less muscular, tend to decrease rate of liveweight gain by 15-20% Usually done in young animals (e.g. before 2 weeks old in piglets) for ease of handle, faster healing and lesser stress than those castrated later. **Common methods:** 1. use of burdizzo / emasculatom 2. surgical (incision method) - a. close type - b. open type 3. Caponization (poultry) - capons are usually grown for 17-20 weeks and marketed at 3.6-4.5 kg dressed - done usually at 2-4 weeks of age. Single slit-incision is made on one side of the bird and both testes are removed. ### Dehorning and Hoof Trimming Dehorning is the removal of horns in cattle, goat and sheep. **Advantages:** 1. requires less space in feedlots, transit/shipment 2. more uniform in appearance 3. prevent injuries to other animals, human handlers 4. facilitates handling and management **Methods:** 1. Debudding/disbudding - a. chemical (use of caustic soda, commercial dehoming paste) - b. hot iron cautery 2. Dehoming iron - for horns not more than 1.5-2.0 cm long 3. Surgical (using Barnes dehomer, dehorning clipper, hand/electrical/wire saw) 4. Genetics/breeding (polled cattle) Hoof trimming is the cutting to reduce excessive growth of hooves in sheep and goats, to prevent malformation of toes and prevent foot rot caused by combination of bacteria, manure or dirt that have accumulated inside the untrimmed hoof. **Procedure:** using sharp knife or chisel, trim hooves until the edges of the hoof is at the same level with the frog (soft part at the center. ### Sexing of Chicks It is almost impossible to determine the sex of living chick embryo at the time the egg is laid or at anytime thereafter until hatching. However there are certain management procedures where sex determination is important in the very early age of birds, and the earliest possible can be from day-old or hatching time onwards. **Methods:** 1. CloacalWent sexing 2. Feather sexing* 3. Color sexing* * Feather and color sexing requires special breeding/crossing programs. ### Habits and Behavioral Problerns (cannibalism, tail / ear biting, chewing fence/stall and newborn rejection) ### Cannibalism - - bad habit developed by some growing chickens, more commonly observed in hens and high producing birds, similar to feeding behavior by pecking different parts of the body (toe, feather, cloaca, head, wing, etc.) in other birds resulting however to serious injury, bleeding even death of victim birds. **Possible causes:** 1. imbalanced rations 2. overcrowding and insufficient feeding and drinking spaces 3. extended periods without feed and/or water 4. poor ventilation 5. excessive heat and too much light in the grow house 6. prompted by the presence of injuries or blood in other birds (eg. inversion or prolapse of the oviduct) **Prevention:** 1. Correction the above possible causes (improvement of the environment and proper management) 2. Debeaking or beak trimming - reduction or cutting of the beak in young (usually within 9 days of age) birds (confined growing commercial broilers / layers) to routinely prevent problems such as cannibalism. Procedure: the upper beak is accurately cut from 1/3 to 1/2 of its length starting from the tip. The tip of the lower beak may also be trimmed, but it should be slightly longer than the upper beak. Beak trimming also has the advantage of reducing feed wastage. 3. Maintaining light at low intensity 4. Dubbing-cutting off the comb at day 1 in pullets to be placed in cages as large combs can become entangled in cage wires causing injuries, which may prompt birds to cannibalism. Dubbing is also a common practice in fighting cocks (gamefowls) done usually at about 7 months of age in preparation during fighting age. Many gamefowl raisers and breeders believe dubbing (including removal of wattles) results to better cocks' fighting abilities for the reasons that combs and wattles can become disturbance during fighting, and only become easy targets to injure cocks that can result to serious bleeding. Some also believe large combs and wattles may compete nutrients