BIO 2 PDF - Cellular Respiration, Biology, Photosynthesis

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Photosynthesis vs Cellular : NICOLE ANGELA A MORENO Respiration : 12-STEM FLEMING Photosynthesis Cellular CELLULAR RESPIRATION...

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Photosynthesis vs Cellular : NICOLE ANGELA A MORENO Respiration : 12-STEM FLEMING Photosynthesis Cellular CELLULAR RESPIRATION Respiration -​ is the process by which glucose molecules are broken down to release energy. ✓ produces food ✓ consumes (glucose) food (glucose) This process is a series of chemical reactions which produces ATP. Most ✓ produce energy ✓ releases energy (ATP) cellular processes use ATP for energy. ✓ consume CO2 ✓ produces CO2 ✓ releases O2 ✓ consumes O2 ✓ light dependent ✓ light -​ Occurs only independent on plant -​ Occurs in all living organisms CLARIFICATION OF TERMS Cytosol - the FLUID ( and suspended COMPARING THE REACTANTS AND molecules of salts, sugar, amino acids, PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS enzymes, etc.) around the organelles. AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION. Cytoplasm - the cytosol PLUS the organelles suspended with it (i.e., -​ Cellular respiration appears to EVERYTHING except the NUCLEUS) be the reverse of photosynthesis: -​ The reactants of one process are the products of the other. -​ However, the steps of WHAT IS CELLULAR RESPIRATION? cellular respiration are not simply the reverse of -​ Cellular Respiration can be photosynthesis considered the opposite process of photosynthesis -​ is the transformation of food energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP -​ Plants and animals go through the same process of cellular respiration REACTION FORMULA Glucose combined with six oxygen molecules | Aerobic respiration produces 36 ATP Six carbon dioxide molecules molecules from each glucose and six water molecules, and molecule. ATP molecules. Anaerobic respiration produces only 2 ATP molecules. Some organisms Arrows connate “yield” as in are only capable of anaerobic produces respiration. Other organisms are capable of both types of cellular respiration. TWO TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION Anaerobic respiration is the process that releases energy from food ANAEROBIC AEROBIC molecules in the absence of oxygen. ✓ Occurs when ✓ Occurs in the Anaerobic respiration produces oxygen is not presence of present oxygen (O2) different products depending on the -​ When O2 is organism and the type of anaerobic not process. available, fermentatio n occurs in In yeast: The end products are the ethanol and carbon dioxide. cytoplasm ✓ Results in ✓ The process is In animal muscle cells: The end ​ Ethanol continued in the product is lactic acid. and CO2 mitochondria of -​ Yeast, beer, the cell Both processes produce a small and bread a.​ KrebsCycle Lactic acid b.​ Electron amount of ATP compared to aerobic -​ Muscle Transport respiration. ✅ cells Chain CHECKPOINT PHOTOSYNTHESIS - opposite process of Respiration 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2 ✓ Remember in photosynthesis, plant cells consume CO2 and produce O2, while at the basic level respiration consumes O2 and produces CO2. AEROBIC RESPIRATION -​ requires oxygen ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION -​ oxygen is not required.  -​ has characterization of -​ a metabolic pathway by which fermentation one molecule of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) is broken down into two AEROBIC RESPIRATION molecules of pyruvate(C₃H₄O₃), yielding a small amount of energy Cellular respiration is the process by in the form of ATP and NADH. which glucose molecules are broken down to release energy. OXIDATION In respiration glucose is oxidized, This process is a series of chemical and energy is released in the form of reactions which produces ATP. Most adenosine triphosphate. cellular processes use ATP for energy. Oxidation - is combining any molecule with a molecule of oxygen (O2). 3 STEPS PROCESS ADP is then further oxidized into the 1.​ Glycolysis pyruvate 2.​ Krebs Cycle 3.​ Electron Transport GLYCOLYSIS -​ Occurs in the cytoplasm -​ First step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration Is universal in organisms; therefore, most likely evolved before the Krebs cycle and electron transport system. Oxidation process is when a molecule loses an electron or (gains GLYCOLYSIS (gly-KOI. uh-sis) oxygen molecule or loses hydrogen -​ is the process by which molecule) glucose is converted to pyruvate and energy is Reduction process is when a released. molecule gains an electron or → (Pyruvate is a (addition of hydrogen or removal of three-carbon molecule oxygen) that enters the Krebs cycle) ENERGY CURRENCY Glycolysis occurs in the -​ Adenosine triphosphate, cytoplasm of the cell. otherwise known as ATP is considered to be the major Glycolysis is actually a energy source of the cell ten-step process, with intermediate products made at -​ Energy is released from the each step. conversion of ATP to adenosine diphosphate or ADP Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration begin with a Step -​ ATP is the immediate source of called glycolysis. energy in a cell – “the more ATP that is produced, the more Glykys – sweet; Lysis – splitting energy a cell has.”  NADH the Electron Carrier ​ NADH is a reduced form of NAD+ ​ NAD+ functions as an electron carrier from one step to the A single glucose molecule that has next in the respiration process undergone glycolysis will produce a net ​ The end products of the yield of two NADH, two ATP and two reaction include pyruvate molecules. You may recall that -​ 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP and 2 NADH is an energy storing compound. NADH molecules. Only about 2 percent of the chemical -​ energy contained in each glucose NADH--- Nicotinamide adenine molecule is released by glycolysis. Most dinucleotide + hydrogen reduced kasi of the remaining chemical energy is in nadagdagan ng hydrogen the pyruvate molecules. This energy is NAD+--- Nicotinamide adenine released in the next stage, the Krebs dinucleotide cycle. WHERE IN THE CELL ARE WE? BREAKDOWN OF GLUCOSE A series of reactions break down the glucose molecule into pyruvate -​ Pyruvate = two 3-carbon molecules This process yields 2 ATP molecules for each molecule of glucose broken down and 2 NADH molecules Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. The presence of oxygen Remember that glucose is a 6-carbon determines where the next set of steps molecule. To break down glucose to will occur. Anaerobic respiration pyruvate, the cell needs to invest 2 ATP continues in the cytoplasm, while molecules as a source of energy. aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondrial matrix (in the mitochondria), which is what we will talk about next.  The acetyl group of acetyl-CoA is FACTS ✓ oxidized to form two molecules of CO2, and one ATP -​ Glycolysis occurs during both the anaerobic and aerobic FADH2 stands for Flavin adenine respiration processes dinucleotide -​ Only 2 NADH molecules are Recall again that oxidation is combining produced during glycolysis a molecule with O2 KREB’S CYCLE This prep stage occurs twice for every -​ Oxygen required = aerobic original glucose molecule put in process -​ Occurs in the mitochondrial -​ Two molecules of acetyl-CoA matrix are produced from each glucose molecule, so two The Krebs cycle, named after its Krebs cycle turns are required, discoverer Hans Krebs, yielding four CO2, six NADH, two FADH2, and two ATPs FADH2 stands for Flavin adenine dinucleotide Remember that this is still occurring in the mitochondrial matrix The pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are transformed into acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle. “PREP STAGE” It is a set of reactions that breaks down In the preparatory phase of the Krebs acetyl-CoA to form CO, ATP NADH, and cycle the pyruvate is “prepped” FADH. (oxidized) into a usable form, known This cycle is also called the citric acid as Acetyl-CoA (this is as it enters the cycle because the first reaction forms mitochondrial matrix) citric acid. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN Third step in aerobic respiration​ Occurs in inner membrane of mitochondria -​ The rest of the energy is contained in electrons carried by NADH and FADH2. -​ Before it can be used by the cell, the electrons' energy must be converted to ATP. -​ Electron transport is the process by which energy is transferred from NADH and FADH2, to ATP. -​ This phase of aerobic respiration requires oxygen. -​ The movement of electrons from NADH and FADH2, occurs along an electron transport chain in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. ​ Electrons that have become “excited” are brought to the ETC by carriers such as NADH and FADH2 ​ When the hydrogen ions flow back through the mitochondrial membrane, the energy is released.  -​ The electron transport GLYCOLYSIS - The first step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration is chain generates 32-34 of AEROBIC RESPIRATION - it is where the the 36-38 ATP molecules Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain produced from each steps are located glucose molecule. “PREP” stage - Acetyl-CoA is produced in this stage of aerobic respiration from the -​ The end products of ETC pyruvate molecule. include NAD+, FAD, water, and 32-34 ATPs. -​ High levels of carbon ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION dioxide can kill cells, and for this reason all FERMENTATION -​ Anaerobic respiration process organisms have -​ It is the extraction of energy specialized mechanisms from pyruvate in the absence for removing this waste of oxygen. product. As you know, you cannot survive with- out oxygen. However, certain cells in your body-namely, your muscle cells-can produce energy without oxygen. Some unicellular organisms such as yeast can also break down carbohydrates without oxygen. TWO TYPES OF FERMENTATION ALCOHOLIC LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION FERMENTATION -​ Carried -​ Carried out by out by yeast and muscles some when O2 TOTAL ATPs PRODUCED IN ANAEROBIC bacteria is not CELLULAR RESPIRATION absorbed fast -​ The 36-38 ATP molecules yield enough represent less than half of the · Also chemical energy in one glucose occurs in molecule. Yet enough energy is the collected by this method for humans bacteria and all other aerobic organisms to found in live. yogurt -​ Results in -​ Results in ethanol lactic acid and CO2 · The trapped CO2 is what causes bread to rise ✓ Remember that… -​ Lactate is removed by the oxygen cells found -​ Both begin with glycolysis in the blood -​ The pyruvate does not go -​ Have you ever been sore through the Krebs cycle or after playing a football through the electron game or from climbing transport chain stairs the day before? ATP PRODUCTION SUMMARY OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION -​ During anaerobic respiration, only 2 molecules of ATP are produced during the first and essentially only step; glycolysis. -​ The low ATP yield of glucose in fermentation occurs because the glucose molecule is not completely broken down, or metabolized. -​ Fermentation does not breakdown glucose to its full energy potential, but does provide a quick burst of ✓FACTS: necessary energy when oxygen cannot reach the cells OXYGEN - ABSENT during anaerobic fast enough respiration Ethanol, CO2, and Lactic Acid - ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION products of anaerobic respiration AEROBIC RESPIRATION - produces -​ Alcoholic fermentation is an MORE ATP molecules than Anaerobic important economic resource. respiration Bakers use the alcoholic fermentation of yeast to make breads. As yeasts break down the carbohydrates in dough, CO2 is produced and trapped in the dough. The bubbles of trapped CO2 cause the dough to rise and are visible as the small holes in baked bread. As the dough bakes, the yeasts die, and the alcohol evaporates. -​ Alcoholic fermentation is also used to make wine, beer, and the ethanol that is added to gasoline to make gasohol. LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION ​ The partial breakdown of glucose in muscle cells results in lactic acid. GENETICS AND HEREDITY How many chromosomes are there in each cell? GENETICS - The study of the way ✓ 46 CHROMOSOMES or 23 animals & plants pass on to their PAIRS offspring traits such as: eye color, How many chromosomes are in hair color, height, body build, blood Reproductive (egg & sperm) or Germ types, intelligence, gender, etc. cells? ✓ 23 CHROMOSOMES HEREDITY - Characteristics that a (combined = the 46 child receives from both parents chromosomes) CELL: Basic unit of all living matter CELL DIVISION (Adult = over 10 trillion cells). MITOSIS - Cell divides by copying the CYTOPLASM: Substance of a cell DNA - cell splits - new cell with outside of the nucleus. normal number of chromosomes (Cell growth & repair) NUCLEUS: Central point of cell / contains genetic coding for MEIOSIS - Creates 1/2 sets of maintaining life systems and issuing chromosomes commands for growth & Women = 23 Men = 23 ​ reproduction. Combined = 46​ CHROMOSOMES: Female Sex Cells​ XX →(Ovum or 46 in each Nucleus (23 pairs) Egg) GENES: bands on chromosomes Male Sex Cells​ XY​ ​ (thousands of genes). (Sperm) DNA on genes (billions of DNA). Baby Girl = XX Baby Boy = XY ​ Conception is the union of an OVUM and the SPERM Gender is determined by the father! ​ Someone should have told King Henry VIII! DOMINANT Gene: More powerful - trait seen in person RECESSIVE Gene: Weaker and hides in the background. Trait can only determine when two of them are present - may show up in future generations. CARRIER: Has a recessive gene that is not visible B = BROWN eyes (dominant) b = BLUE eyes (recessive) BB = BROWN eyes bb = BLUE eyes Bb = BROWN eyes but carry the recessive BLUE eye gene MULTIPLE BIRTHS What are the 4 FACTORS that may contribute to Multiple Births? ZYGOTE: the cell that is formed when 1.​ History in the family a sperm fertilized an egg (ovum) 2.​ Increased hormones naturally -​ More than 1 egg MONOZYGOTE: Identical Twins 1 released Egg + 1 SpermFertilized ovum splits 3.​ Fertility Drugs into 2 identical cells - Always the -​ More than 1 egg same sex released 4.​ Age 32-36 DIZYGOTE: Fraternal Twins 2 Eggs + different SpermWill look different - May be different or the same sex CONJOINED (Siamese) TWINS: Ovum splits apart, but the separation is not completed. Babies are joined at some part of their bodies. MENDEL'S LAW ALLELE– different forms of a gene (trait) GREGOR MENDEL Background: ​ Born in 1822 in Czechoslovakia. ​ Became a monk at a monastery in 1843. ​ Taught biology and had Dominant – allele, which if present, interests in statistics. will ALWAYS be expressed ​ Also studied at the -​ Represented by a capital letter, University of Vienna usually the first letter of the ​ Most famous for his work dominant trait with pea plants ​ Between 1856 and 1863 he Recessive – allele, which will only be expressed in the absence of a grew and tested over dominant allele 28,000 pea plants -​ Represented by a lowercase ​ (That’s what he is letter, the same letter as the contemplating so dominant trait, just lowercase seriously in the picture) ↓ For example: Tall is dominant over short, T = tall, t = short Homozygous = when an organism has two identical alleles. ​ YY or yy Heterozygous = when an organism has different alleles. ​ Yy  ​ Easy to grow. ​ Easily identifiable traits -​ Trait – a specific characteristic ​ Can work with large numbers of samples Genotype ​ They self-pollinate normally. ​ The genetic makeup ​ It could be crossed by hand. ​ Symbolized with letters -​ For example: Tt or TT Phenotype ​ Physical appearance of an organism ​ Description of the trait -​ For example: Tall, short, purple, white GENETICS Gregor Mendel and his wacky peas ​ Gregor Mendel's pea plant experiments revealed how traits are passed down from generation to generation. → The scientific study of heredity. WHY DID MENDEL USE PEAS AS HIS EXPERIMENT FOR TRAITS?