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CHAPTER - 1 INDIAN REGULATORY FRAMEWORK Q1. What is Law? Sol. Law is a set of obligations and duties imposed by the government for securing welfare and providing justice to society. India’s legal framework reflects the social, political, economic, and cultural aspects of our vast and diversified country. Q2. What is the Process of Making a Law Sol. When a law is proposed in parliament it is called a Bill. After discussion and debate, the law is passed in Lok Sabha. Thereafter, it has to be passed in Rajya Sabha. It then has to obtain the assent of the President of India. Finally, the law will be notified by the Government in the publication called the Official Gazette of India. The law will become applicable from the date mentioned in the notification as the effective date. Once it is notified and effective, it is called an Act of Parliament. Q3. Types of laws in the Indian Legal System Sol. The laws in the Indian legal system could be broadly classified as follows: Criminal Law Criminal law is concerned with laws pertaining to violations of the rule of law or public wrongs and punishment of the same. Criminal Law is governed under the Indian Penal Code, 1860, and the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (CRPC). The Indian Penal Code, 1860, defines the crime, its nature, and punishments whereas the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973, defines exhaustive procedure for executing the punishments of the crimes. Murder, rape, theft, fraud, cheating and assault are some examples of criminal offences under the law. Civil Law Matters of disputes between individuals or organisations are dealt with under Civil Law. Civil courts enforce the violation of certain rights and obligations through the institution of a civil suit. Civil law primarily focuses on dispute resolution rather than punishment. The act of process and the administration of civil law are governed by the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (CPC). Civil law can be further classified into Law of Contract, Family Law, Property Law, and Law of Tort. Some examples of civil offences are breach of contract, non-delivery of goods, non-payment of dues to lender or seller defamation, breach of contract, and disputes between landlord and tenant. Common Law A judicial precedent or a case law is common law. A judgment delivered by the Supreme Court will be binding upon the courts within the territory of India under Article 141 of the Indian Constitution. 1|Page The doctrine of Stare Decisis is the principle supporting common law. It is a Latin phrase that means “to stand by that which is decided.” The doctrine of Stare Decisis reinforces the obligation of courts to follow the same principle or judgement established by previous decisions while ruling a case where the facts are similar or “on all four legs” with the earlier decision. Principles of Natural Justice Natural justice, often known as Jus Natural deals with certain fundamental principles of justice going beyond written law. Nemo judex in causa sua (Literally meaning “No one should be made a judge in his own cause, and it’s a Rule against Prejudice), audi alteram partem (Literally meaning “hear the other party or give the other party a fair hearing), and reasoned decision are the rules of Natural Justice. A judgement can override or alter a common law, but it cannot override or change the statute. Q4. Write a short note on The Ministry of Finance. Sol. The Ministry of Finance (Vitta Mantralaya) is a Ministry within the Government of India concerned with the economy of India, serving as the Treasury of India. In particular, it concerns itself with taxation, financial legislation, financial institutions, capital markets, centre and state finances, and the Union Budget. As a Chartered Accountant, many of your day-to-day work life will be impacted by this ministry and its proclamations. This Ministry is so important that many ministers have preferred to hold the portfolio of Finance Minister also. One of the important functions of the Finance Ministry is the presentation of the Union Budget. This annual event is eagerly awaited by professionals and the common man as it provides for the rates of taxes and budget allocations for the ensuing year. Q5. Write a short Note on The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) Sol. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI):  is the regulatory body  for securities and commodity market in India  under the ownership of Ministry of Finance within the Government of India.  It was established on 12 April, 1988 as an executive body and was given statutory powers on 30 January, 1992 through the SEBI Act, 1992. Q6. Write a detailed note on Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Sol. Reserve Bank of India:  is India’s Central Bank and regulatory body responsible for regulation of the Indian banking system.  It is under the ownership of Ministry of Finance, Government of India.  It is responsible for the control, issue and maintaining supply of the Indian rupee.  It also manages the country’s main payment systems and works to promote its economic development. 2|Page  Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran (BRBNM) is a specialised division of RBI through which it prints and mints Indian currency notes (INR) in two of its currency printing presses located in Nashik (Western India) and Dewas (Central India).  RBI established the National Payments Corporation of India as one of its specialised division to regulate the payment and settlement systems in India.  Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation was established by RBI as one of its specialized division for the purpose of providing insurance of deposits and guaranteeing of credit facilities to all Indian banks. Q7. Explain the Structure of the Indian Judicial System. Sol. (i) Supreme Court: The Supreme Court is the apex body of the judiciary. It was established on 26th January, 1950. The Chief Justice of India is the highest authority appointed under Article 126. The principal bench of the Supreme Court consists of seven members including the Chief Justice of India. Presently, the number has increased to 34 including the Chief Justice of India due to the rise in the number of cases and workload. An individual can seek relief in the Supreme Court by filing a writ petition under Article 32. (ii) High Court: The highest court of appeal in each state and union territory is the High Court. Article 214 of the Indian Constitution states that there must be a High Court in each state. The High Court has appellant, original jurisdiction, and Supervisory jurisdiction. However, Article 227 of the Indian Constitution limits a High Court’s supervisory power. In India, there are twenty-five High Courts, one for each state and union territory, and one for each state and union territory. Six states share a single High Court. An individual can seek remedies against violation of fundamental rights in High Court by filing a writ under Article 226. (iii) District Court: Below the High Courts are the District Courts. The Courts of District Judge deal with Civil law matters i.e. contractual disputes and claims for damages etc., The Courts of Sessions deals with Criminal matters. Under pecuniary jurisdiction, a civil judge can try suits valuing not more than Rupees two crore. Jurisdiction means the power to control. Courts get territorial Jurisdiction based on the areas covered by them. Cases are decided based on the local limits within which the parties reside or the property under dispute is situated. (iv) Metropolitan courts: Metropolitan courts are established in metropolitan cities in consultation with the High Court where the population is ten lakh or more. Chief Metropolitan Magistrate has powers as Chief Judicial Magistrate and Metropolitan Magistrate has powers as the Court of a Magistrate of the first class. 3|Page CHAPTER 2 - THE INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872 Q1. All contracts are agreements, but all agreements are not contracts”. Comment. Sol. An agreement comes into existence when one party makes a proposal or offer to the other party and that other party gives his acceptance to it. A contract is an agreement enforceable by law. It means that to become a contract an agreement must give rise to a legal obligation i.e. duty enforceable by law. If an agreement is incapable of creating a duty enforceable by law, it is not a contract. There can be agreements which are not enforceable by law, such as social, moral or religious agreements. The agreement is a wider term than the contract. All agreements need not necessarily become contracts but all contracts shall always be agreements. All agreements are not contracts: When there is an agreement between the parties and they do not intend to create a legal relationship, it is not a contract. All contracts are agreements: For a contract there must be two things (a) an agreement and (b) enforceability by law. Thus, existence of an agreement is a pre- requisite existence of a contract. Therefore, it is true to say that all contracts are agreements. Thus, we can say that there can be an agreement without it becoming a contract, but we can’t have a contract without an agreement. Q2. A sends an offer to B to sell his second- car for Rs. 1,40,000 with a condition that if B does not reply within a week, he (A) shall treat the offer as accepted. Is A correct in his proposition? Sol. Provision Acceptance to an offer cannot be implied merely from the silence of the offeree, even if it is expressly stated in the offer itself. Unless the offeree has by his previous conduct indicated that his silence amount to acceptance, it cannot be taken as valid acceptance. Analysis and conclusion So, in the given problem, if B remains silent, it does not amount to acceptance. The acceptance must be made within the time limit prescribed by the offer. The acceptance of an offer after the time prescribed by the offer or has elapsed will not avail to turn the offer into a contract. Q3. Explain the type of contracts in the following agreements under the Indian Contract Act,1872: Page | 1 (i) A coolie in uniform picks up the luggage of A to be carried out of the railway station without being asked by A and A allows him to do so. (ii) Obligation of finder of lost goods to return them to the true owner. (iii) A contracts with B (owner of the factory) for the supply of 10 tons of sugar, but before the supply is effected, the fire caught in the factory and everything was destroyed. Sol. It is an implied contract and A must pay for the services of the coolie detailed by him. (i) Implied Contracts: Implied contracts come into existence by implication. Most often the implication is by law and or by action. Section 9 of the Act contemplates such implied contracts when it lays down that in so far as such proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be implied. (ii) Obligation of finder of lost goods to return them to the true owner cannot be said to arise out of a contract even in its remotest sense, as there is neither offer and acceptance nor consent. These are said to be quasi-contracts. Quasi-Contract: A quasi-contract is not an actual contract but it resembles a contract. It is created by law under certain circumstances. The law creates and enforces legal rights and obligations when no real contract exists. Such obligations are known as quasi-contracts. In other words, it is a contract in which there is no intention on part of either party to make a contract but law imposes a contract upon the parties. (iii) The above contract is a void contract. Void Contract: Section 2 (j) states as follows: “A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes void when it ceases to be enforceable”. Thus, a void contract is one which cannot be enforced by a court of law. Q4. Shambhu Dayal started “self service” system in his shop. Smt. Prakash entered the shop, took a basket and after taking articles of her choice into the basket reached the cashier for payments. The cashier refuses to accept the price. Can Shambhu Dayal be compelled to sell the said articles to Smt. Prakash? Decide as per the provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Sol. Provision Invitation to offer: The offer should be distinguished from an invitation to offer. An offer is the final expression of willingness by the offer or to be bound by his offer should the party chooses to accept it. Where a party, without expressing his final willingness, proposes certain terms on which he is willing to negotiate, he does not make an offer, but invites only the other party to make an offer on those terms. This is the basic distinction between offer and invitation to offer. The display of articles with a price in it in a self- service shop is merely an invitation to offer. It is in no sense an offer for sale, the acceptance of which constitutes a contract. Analysis and conclusion In this case, Smt. Prakash by selecting some articles and approaching the cashier for payment simply made an offer to buy the articles selected by her. If the cashier does not accept the price, the interested buyer cannot compel him to sell. Page | 2 Q5. State whether there is any contract in following cases: (a) A engages B to do certain work and remuneration to be paid as fixed by C. (b) A and B promise to pay for the studies of their maid’s son (c) A takes a seat in public bus. (d) A, a chartered accountant promises to help his friend to file his return. Sol. (a) It is a valid express contract (b) It is not a contract as it is a social agreement (c) It is an implied contract. A is bound to pay for the bus fare. (d) It is a social agreement without any intention to create a legal relationship. Q6. Miss Shakuntala puts an application to be a teacher in the school. She was appointed by the trust of the school. Her friend who works in the same school informs her about her appointment informally. But later due to some internal reasons her appointment was cancelled. Can Miss Shakuntala claim for damages? Sol. Provision As per Section 4, communication of acceptance is complete as against proposer when it is put in the course of transmission to him. Analysis and conclusion In the present case, school authorities have not put any offer letter in transmission. Her information from a third person will not form part of contract. Therefore, Miss Shakuntala cannot claim damages. Q7. Define the term acceptance under the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Explain the legal rules regarding a valid acceptance Sol. (a) Definition of Acceptance: In terms of Section 2(b) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 the term acceptance is defined as “When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, proposal is said to be accepted. The proposal, when accepted, becomes a promise”. Legal Rules regarding a valid acceptance (1) Acceptance can be given only by the person to whom offer is made. In case of a specific offer, it can be accepted only by the person to whom it is made. In case of a general offer, it can be accepted by any person who has the knowledge of the offer. (2) Acceptance must be absolute and unqualified: As per section 7 of the Act, acceptance is valid only when it is absolute and unqualified and is also expressed in some usual and reasonable manner unless the proposal prescribes the manner in which it must be accepted. If the proposal prescribes the manner in which it must be accepted, then it must be accepted accordingly. Page | 3 (3) The acceptance must be communicated: To conclude a contract between the parties, the acceptance must be communicated in some perceptible form. Further when a proposal is accepted, the offeree must have the knowledge of the offer made to him. If he does not have the knowledge, there can be no acceptance. The acceptance must relate specifically to the offer made. Then only it can materialize into a contract. (4) Acceptance must be in the prescribed mode: Where the mode of acceptance is prescribed in the proposal, it must be accepted in that manner. But if the proposer does not insist on the proposal being accepted in the manner prescribed after it has been accepted otherwise, i.e., not in the prescribed manner, the proposer is presumed to have consented to the acceptance. (5) Time: Acceptance must be given within the specified time limit, if any, and if no time is stipulated, acceptance must be given within the reasonable time and before the offer lapses. (6) Mere silence is not acceptance: The acceptance of an offer cannot be implied from the silence of the offeree or his failure to answer, unless the offeree has in any previous conduct indicated that his silence is the evidence of acceptance. (7) Acceptance by conduct/ Implied Acceptance: Section 8 of the Act lays down that “the performance of the conditions of a proposal, or the acceptance of any consideration for a reciprocal promise which may be offered with a proposal, constitutes an acceptance of the proposal. This section provides the acceptance of the proposal by conduct as against other modes of acceptance i.e. verbal or written communication. Therefore, when a person performs the act intended by the proposer as the consideration for the promise offered by him, the performance of the act constitutes acceptance. Q 8. Define the term “Acceptance’. Discuss the legal provisions relating to communication of acceptance. Sol. 1. According to Section 2(b), the term ‘acceptance’ is defined as follows: “When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal, when accepted, becomes a promise. “An acceptance in order to be valid must be absolute, unqualified, accepted according to the mode if any prescribed within the reasonable time and communicated to offer or. Acceptance can also be made by way of conduct The legal provisions relating to communication of acceptance are contained in Section 4. The communication of an acceptance is complete: (a) as against the proposer, when it is put in a course of transmission to him, so as to be out of power of the acceptor; Page | 4 (b) as against the acceptor, when it comes to the knowledge of the proposer. Section 3 of the Act prescribes, in general terms, two modes of communication, namely: (1) by any act or (2) by omission intending thereby communicate to the other or which has the effect of communicating it to the other. The first method would include any conduct and words whether written or oral. Written words would include letters, telegrams, advertisements, etc. Oral words would include telephone messages. Any conduct would include positive acts or signs so that the other person understands what the person acting or making signs means to say or convey. Omission would exclude silence but include such conduct or forbearance on one’s part that the other person takes it as his willingness or assent. These are not the only modes of communication of the intention of the parties. There are other means as well, e.g., if you as the owner, deliver the goods to me as the buyer thereof at a certain price, this transaction will be understood by everyone, as acceptance by act or conduct, unless there is an indication to the contrary. The phrase appearing in Section 3 “which has the effect of communicating it”, clearly refers to an act or omission or conduct which may be indirect but which results in communicating an acceptance or non-acceptance. However, a mere mental but unilateral act of assent in one’s own mind does not tantamount to communication, since it cannot have the effect of communicating it to the other. Q9. Mr. B makes a proposal to Mr. S by post to sell his house for Rs. 10 lakhs and posted the letter on 10th April 2020 and the letter reaches to Mr. S on 12th April 2020. He reads the letter on 13th April 2020. Mr. S sends his letter of acceptance on 16th April 2020 and the letter reaches Mr. B on 20th April 2020. On 17th April Mr. S changed his mind and sends a telegram withdrawing his acceptance. Telegram reaches to Mr. B on 19th April 2020. Examine with reference to the Indian Contract Act, 1872: (i) On which date, the offer made by Mr. B will complete? (ii) Discuss the validity of acceptance. What would be validity of acceptance if letter of revocation and letter of acceptance reached together? Sol. (i) Provision According to Section 4 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, “the communication of offer is complete when it comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made”. Page | 5 When a proposal is made by post, its communication will be complete when the letter containing the proposal reaches the person to whom it is made. Further, mere receiving of the letter is not sufficient, he must receive or read the message contained in the letter. Analysis and conclusion In the given question, Mr. B makes a proposal by post to Mr. S to sell his house. The letter was posted on 10th April 2020 and the letter reaches to Mr. S on 12th April 2020 but he reads the letter on 13th April 2020. Thus, the offer made by Mr. B will complete on the day when Mr. S reads the letter, i.e. 13th April 2020. (ii) Provision When communication of acceptance is complete: Where a proposal is accepted by a letter sent by the post, in terms of Section 4 of the Act, the communication of acceptance will be complete as against the proposer when the letter of acceptance is posted and as against the acceptor when the letter reaches the proposer. Revocation of Acceptance: The acceptor can revoke his acceptance any time before the letter of acceptance reaches the offer or, if the revocation telegram arrives before or at the same time with the letter of acceptance, the revocation is absolute. Analysis and conclusion In the given question, when Mr. S accepts Mr. B’s proposal and sends his acceptance by post on 16th April 2020, the communication of acceptance as against Mr. B is complete on 16th April 2020, when the letter is posted. As against Mr. S acceptance will be complete, when the letter reaches Mr. B i.e. 20th April 2020. Whereas, acceptor, will be bound by his acceptance only when the letter of acceptance has reached the proposer. The telegram for revocation of acceptance reached Mr. B on 19th April 2020 i.e. before the letter of acceptance of offer (20th April 2020). Hence, the revocation is absolute. Therefore, acceptance to an offer is invalid. (iii) It will not make any difference even if the telegram of revocation and letter of acceptance would have reached on the same day, i.e. the revocation then also would have been absolute. As per law, acceptance can be revoked anytime before the communication of acceptance is complete. Since revocation was made before the communication of acceptance was complete and communication can be considered as complete only when the letter of acceptance reaches the proposer i.e. Mr. B. Q10. A shop-keeper displayed a pair of dress in the show-room and a price tag of Rs. 2,000 was attached to the dress. Ms. Lovely looked to the tag and rushed to the cash counter. Then she asked the shop-keeper to receive the payment and pack up the dress. The shop-keeper refused to hand-over the dress to Ms. Lovely in consideration of the price stated in the price tag attached to the Ms. Lovely seeks your advice whether she can sue the shop-keeper for the above cause under the Indian Contract Act, 1872 Page | 6 Sol. Provision The offer should be distinguished from an invitation to offer. An offer is definite and capable of converting an intention in to a contract. Whereas an invitation to an offer is only a circulation of an offer, it is an attempt to induce offers and precedes a definite offer. Where a party, without expressing his final willingness, proposes certain terms on which he is willing to negotiate, he does not make an offer, but invites only the other party to make an offer on those terms. This is the basic distinction between offer and invitation to offer. The display of articles with a price in it in a self-service shop is merely an invitation to offer. It is in no sense an offer for sale, the acceptance of which constitutes a contract. Analysis and Conclusion In this case, Ms. Lovely by selecting the dress and approaching the shopkeeper for payment simply made an offer to buy the dress selected by her. If the shopkeeper does not accept the price, the interested buyer cannot compel him to sell. Q11. Explain the modes of revocation of an offer as per the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Sol. Modes of revocation of Offer (i) By notice of revocation (ii) By lapse of time: The time for acceptance can lapse if the acceptance is not given within the specified time and where no time is specified, then within a reasonable time. (iii) By non-fulfillment of condition precedent: Where the acceptor fails to fulfill a condition precedent to acceptance the proposal gets revoked. (iv) By death or insanity: Death or insanity of the proposer would result in automatic revocation of the proposal but only if the fact of death or insanity comes to the knowledge of the acceptor. (v) By counter offer (vi) By the non- acceptance of the offer according to the prescribed or usual mode (vii) By subsequent illegality Q12. Comment on the following statements: (a) Acceptance must be absolute and unqualified. (b) Acceptance must be in the prescribed mode. Sol. Acceptance must be absolute and unqualified: As per section 7 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 acceptance is valid only when it is absolute and unqualified and is also expressed in some usual and reasonable manner unless the proposal prescribes the manner in which it must be accepted. If the proposal prescribes the manner in which it must be accepted, then it must be accepted accordingly. Page | 7 Example: ‘A’ enquires from ‘B’, “Will you purchase my car for Rs. 2 lakhs?” If ‘B’ replies “I shall purchase your car for Rs. 2 lakhs, if you buy my motorcycle for Rs. 50000/-, here ‘B’ cannot be considered to have accepted the proposal. If on the other hand ‘B’ agrees to purchase the car from ‘A’ as per his proposal subject to availability of valid Registration Certificate / book for the car, then the acceptance is in place though the offer contained no mention of R.C. book. This is because expecting a valid title for the car is not a condition. Therefore, the acceptance in this case is unconditional. Acceptance must be in the prescribed mode: Where the mode of acceptance is prescribed in the proposal, it must be accepted in that manner. But if the proposer does not insist on the proposal being accepted in the manner prescribed after it has been accepted otherwise, i.e., not in the prescribed manner, the proposer is presumed to have consented to the acceptance. Example: If the offer or prescribes acceptance through messenger and offeree sends acceptance by email, there is no acceptance of the offer if the offer or informs the offeree that the acceptance is not according to the mode prescribed. But if the offer or fails to do so, it will be presumed that he has accepted the acceptance and a valid contract will arise. Q13. Explain the type of contracts in the following agreements under the Indian Contract Act, 1872: (i) A coolie in uniform picks up the luggage of A to be carried out of the railway station without being asked by A and A allows him to do so. (ii) Obligation of finder of lost goods to return them to the true owner (iii) A contracts with B (owner of the factory) for the supply of 10 tons of sugar, but before the supply is effected, the fire caught in the factory and everything was destroyed. Sol. (i) It is an implied contract and A must pay for the services of the coolie. Implied Contracts: Implied contracts come into existence by implication. Most often the implication is by law and or by action. Section 9 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 contemplates such implied contracts when it lays down that in so far as such proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be implied. (ii) Obligation of finder of lost goods to return them to the true owner cannot be said to arise out of a contract even in its remotest sense, as there is neither offer and acceptance nor consent. These are said to be quasi-contracts. Quasi-Contract: A quasi-contract is not an actual contract but it resembles a contract. It is created by law under certain circumstances. The law creates and enforces legal rights and obligations when no real contract exists. Such obligations are known as quasi-contracts. In other words, it is a contract in which there is no intention on part of either party to make a contract but law imposes a contract upon the parties. Page | 8 (iii) The above contract is a void contract. Void Contract: Section 2 (j) of the Act states as follows: “A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes void when it ceases to be enforceable”. Thus, a void contract is one which cannot be enforced by a court of law. Q14. Explain the type of contracts in the following agreements under the Indian Contract Act, 1872: (i) X promise to sell his scooter to Y for Rs. 1 Lac. However, the consent of X has been procured by Y at a gun point. (ii) A bought goods from B in 2015. But no payment was made till 2019. (iii) G agrees to give tuitions to H, a pre-engineering student, from the next month and Hin consideration promises to pay G Rs. 5,000 per month. Sol. (i) In the instant case, X is an aggrieved party and the contract is voidable at his option but not at the option of Y. It means if X accepts the contract, the contract becomes a valid contract then Y has no option of rescinding the contract. (ii) B cannot sue A for the payment in 2019 as it has crossed three years and barred by Limitation Act. A good debt becomes unenforceable after the period of three years as barred by Limitation Act. (iii) Where, G agrees to give tuitions to H, a pre-engineering student, from the next month and H in consideration promises to pay G Rs. 5,000 per month, the contract is executory because it is yet to be carried out. Q15. Mr. Aseem is a learned advocate. His car was stolen from his house. He gave an advertisement in newspaper that he will give the reward of Rs. 10,000 who will give the information about his car. Mr. Vikram reads the advertisement and on making some efforts got the stolen car and informed Mr. Aseem. Mr. Aseem found his car but denied giving reward of Rs. 10,000 to Mr. Vikram with the words, “An advertisement in newspaper is just an invitation to make offer and not an offer. Hence, he is not liable to make the reward.” State with reasons whether under Indian Contract Act, 1872, Mr. Vikram can claim the reward of Rs. 10,000. Sol. Provision An invitation to offer is different from offer. Quotations, menu cards, price tags, advertisements in newspaper for sale are not offer. These are merely invitations to public to make an offer. An invitation to offer is an act precedent to making an offer. Acceptance of an invitation to an offer does not result in the contract and only an offer emerges in the process of negotiation. But there is an exception to above provisions. When advertisement in newspaper is made for reward, it is the general offer to public. Analysis and conclusion On the basis of above provisions and facts, it can be said that as advertisement made by Mr. Aseem to find lost car is an offer, he is liable to pay Rs. 10,000 to Mr. Vikram Page | 9 Q16. A coolie in uniform picks up the luggage of R to be carried out of the railway station without being asked by R and R allows him to do so. Examine whether the coolie is entitled to receive money from R under the Indian Contact Act, 1872. Sol. Provision Implied Contracts: Implied contracts come into existence by implication. Most often the implication is by law and or by action. Section 9 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 contemplates such implied contracts when it lays down that in so far as such proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be implied. Analysis and Conclusion In the present case, it is an implied contract and R must pay for the services of the coolie. Q17. Define an offer. Explain the essentials of a valid offer. How an offer is different from an invitation to offer? Sol. Definition: The word Proposal and offer are used interchangeably and it is defined under Section 2(a) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 as when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal. Essentials: The following are important essentials of an offer: (i) Must be capable of creating legal relation. (ii) Must be certain, definite and not vague. (iii) Must be communicated. (iv) Must be made with a view to obtaining the assent of the other party (v) May be conditional (vi) Offer should not contain a term the noncompliance of which would amount to acceptance (vii) May be general or specific (viii) May be expressed or implied (ix) A statement of price is not an offer Offer and an Invitation to an offer: In terms of Section 2(a) of the Act, an offer is the final expression of willingness by the offer or to be bound by the offer should the other party chooses to accept it. On the other hand, offers made with the intention to negotiate or offers to receive offers are known as invitation to offer. Thus, where a party without expressing his final willingness proposes certain terms on which he is willing to negotiate he does not make an offer, but only invites the other party to make an offer on those terms. Hence, the only thing that is required is the willingness of the offeree to abide by the terms of offer. Q18. A sends an offer to B to sell his second-car for Rs. 1,40,000 with a condition that if B does not reply within a week, he (A) shall treat the offer as accepted. Is A correct in his proposition? What shall be the position if B communicates his acceptance after one week? Page | 10 Sol. Provision Acceptance to an offer cannot be implied merely from the silence of the offeree, even if it is expressly stated in the offer itself. Unless the offeree has by his previous conduct indicated that his silence amount to acceptance, it cannot be taken as valid acceptance. Analysis and Conclusion So in the given problem, if B remains silent, it does not amount to acceptance. The acceptance must be made within the time limit prescribed by the offer. The acceptance of an offer after the time prescribed by the offeror has elapsed will not avail to turn the offer into a contract. Q19. Mr. Pratham applied for a job as principal of a school. The school management decided to appoint him. One member of the school management committee privately informed Mr. Pratham that he was appointed but official communication was not given from the school. Later, the management of the school decided to appoint someone else as a principal. Mr. Pratham filed a suit against the school for cancellation of his appointment and claimed damages for loss of salary. State with reasons, will Mr. Pratham be successful in suit filed against school under the Indian Contract Act, 1872? Sol. Provision As per the rules of acceptance, the acceptance should be communicated to offeror by offeree himself or his authorized agent. Communication of acceptance by third person cannot be concluded in valid acceptance. Analysis and Conclusion In the instant case, Mr. Pratham applied for a job as principal of a school and one member of the school management committee privately informed Mr. Pratham that he was appointed. Later, the management of the school appointed someone else as a principal. On the basis of above provisions and facts, communication of appointment of Mr. Pratham should be made by school management committee or any authorised agent. The communication by third person cannot be termed as communication of acceptance. Therefore, no valid contract was formed between Mr. Pratham and school and Mr. Pratham cannot file a suit against the school for cancellation of his appointment. Q20. Father promised to pay his son a sum of rupee one lakh if the son passed C.A. examination in the first attempt. The son passed the examination in the first attempt, but father failed to pay the amount as promised. Son files a suit for recovery of the amount. State along with reasons whether son can recover the amount under the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Page | 11 Sol. Provision Problem asked in the question is based on the provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 as contained in section 10. According to the provisions there should be an intention to create legal relationship between the parties. Agreements of a social nature or domestic nature do not contemplate legal relationship and as such are not contracts, which can be enforced. This principle has been laid down in the case of Balfour v. Balfour. Accordingly, applying the above provisions and the case decision, Analysis and Conclusion After applying provision to the present case we can conclude that the son cannot recover the amount of Rs. 1 lakh from father Q21. Rahul goes to super market to buy a washing machine. He selects a branded washing machine having a price tag of Rs. 15000 after a discount of Rs. 3000. Rahul reaches at cash counter for making the payment, but cashier says, “Sorry sir, the discount was upto yesterday. There is no discount from today. Hence you have to pay Rs. 18000.” Rahul got angry and insists for Rs. 15000. State with reasons whether under Indian Contract Act, 1872, Rahul can enforce the cashier to sale at discounted price i.e. Rs. 15000. Sol. Provision An invitation to offer is different from offer. Quotations, menu cards, price tags, advertisements in newspaper for sale are not offer. These are merely invitations to public to make an offer. An invitation to offer is an act precedent to making an offer. Acceptance of an invitation to an offer does not result in the contract and only an offer emerges in the process of negotiation. Analysis and Conclusion In the instant case, Rahul reaches to super market and selects a washing machine with a discounted price tag of Rs.15000 but cashier denied to sale at discounted price by saying that discount is closed from today and request to make full payment. But Rahul insists to sale at discounted price. On the basis of above provisions and facts, the price tag with washing machine was not offer. It is merely an invitation to offer. Hence, it is the Rahul who is making the offer not the super market. Cashier has right to reject the Rahul’s offer. Therefore, Rahul cannot enforce cashier to sale at discounted price. Page | 12 THE INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872 UNIT - 2 Q1. “To form a valid contract, consideration must be adequate”. Comment. Sol. The law provides that a contract should be supported by consideration. So long as consideration exists, the Courts are not concerned to its adequacy, provided it is of some value. The adequacy of the consideration is for the parties to consider at the time of making the agreement, not for the Court when it is sought to be enforced (Bolton v. Modden). Consideration must however, be something to which the law attaches value though it need not be equivalent in value to the promise made. According to Explanation 2 to Section 25 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, an agreement to which the consent of the promisor is freely given is not void merely because the consideration is inadequate but the inadequacy of the consideration may be taken into account by the Court in determining the question whether the consent of the promisor was freely given. Q2. Mr. Sohanlal sold 10 acres of his agricultural land to Mr. Mohanlal on 25th September 2020 for Rs. 25 Lakhs. The Property papers mentioned a condition, amongst other details, that whosoever purchases the land is free to use 9 acres as per his choice but the remaining 1 acre has to be allowed to be used by Mr. Chotelal, son of the seller for carrying out farming or other activity of his choice. On 12th October, 2020, Mr. Sohanlal died leaving behind his son and life. On 15th October, 2020 purchaser started construction of an auditorium on the whole 10 acres of land and denied any land to the son. Now Mr. Chotelal wants to file a case against the purchaser and get a suitable redressal. Discuss the above in light of provisions of Indian Contract Act, 1872 and decide upon Mr. Chotelal’s plan of action? Sol. Provision Problem as asked in the question is based on the provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 as contained in section 2(d) and on the principle ‘privity of consideration’. Consideration is one of the essential elements to make a contract valid and it can flow from the promisee or any other person. In view of the clear language used in definition of ‘consideration’ in Section 2(d), it is not necessary that consideration should be furnished by the promisee only. A promise is enforceable if there is some consideration for it and it is quite immaterial whether it moves from the promisee or any other person. The leading authority in the decision of the Chinnaya Vs. Ramayya, held that the consideration can legitimately move from a third party and it is an accepted principle of law in India. Analysis and conclusion In the given problem, Mr. Sohanlal has entered into a contract with Mr. Mohanlal, but Mr. Chotelal has not given any consideration to Mr. Mohanlal but the consideration did flow from Mr. Sohanlal to Mr. Mohanlal on the behalf of Mr. Chotelal and such consideration from third party is sufficient to enforce the promise of Mr. Mohanlal to allow Mr. Chotelal to use 1 acre of land. Further the deed of sale and 1|Page the promise made by Mr. Mohanlal to Mr. Chotelal to allow the use of 1 acre of land were executed simultaneously and therefore they should be regarded as one transaction and there was sufficient consideration for it. Moreover, it is provided in the law that “in case covenant running with the land, where a person purchases land with notice that the owner of the land is bound by certain duties affecting land, the covenant affecting the land may be enforced by the successor of the seller.” In such a case, third party to a contract can file the suit although it has not moved the consideration. Hence, Mr. Chotelal is entitled to file a petition against Mr. Mohanlal for execution of contract. Q3. The general rule is that an agreement without consideration is void. Discuss the cases where the agreement though made without consideration will be valid and enforceable as per Indian Contract Act, 1872. Or State the exceptions to the rule “An agreement without consideration is void”. Or “No consideration, no contract” Comment. Or Are there any circumstances under which a contract, under the provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, without consideration is valid? Explain. Sol. The general rule is that an agreement made without consideration is void (Section 25). In every valid contract, consideration is very important. A contract may only be enforceable when consideration is there. Exception to general Rule: 1. Natural Love and Affection: Conditions to be fulfilled under section 25(1) (i) It must be made out of natural love and affection between the parties. (ii) Parties must stand in near relationship to each other. (iii) It must be in writing. (iv) It must also be registered under the law. A written and registered agreement based on natural love and affection between the parties standing in near relation (e.g., husband and wife) to each other is enforceable even without consideration Example: A husband, by a registered agreement promised to pay his earnings to his wife. Held the agreement though without consideration, was valid. Example: A out of natural love and affection promises to give his newly wedded daughter- in-law a golden necklace worth Rs. 5,00,000. ‘A’ made the promise in writing and signed it and registered. The agreement is valid. 2. Compensation for past voluntary services: A promise to compensate, wholly or in part, a person who has already voluntarily done something for the promisor, is enforceable under Section 25(2). In order that a promise to pay for the past voluntary services be binding, the following essential factors must exist: (i) The services should have been rendered voluntarily. (ii) The services must have been rendered for the promisor. 2|Page (iii) The promisor must be in existence at the time when services were rendered. (iv) The promisor must have intended to compensate the promisee. Example : P finds R’s wallet and gives it to him. R promises to give P Rs.10,000. This is a valid contract. Example: Mr. X had helped his nephew Mr. Y to fight a case in the court of law using his knowledge and intellect. After Mr. Y won the case, he promised Mr. X to pay Rs. 10,000. Held, this is a valid contract as it is compensation to past services. 3. Promise to pay time barred debt: Where a promise in writing signed by the person making it or by his authorized agent, is made to pay a debt barred by limitation it is valid without consideration [Section 25(3)]. Example: A is indebted to C for Rs.60,000 but the debt is barred by the Limitation Act. A sign a written promise now to pay Rs.50,000 in final settlement of the debt. This is a contract without consideration, but enforceable. 4. Agency: According to Section 185 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, no consideration is necessary to create an agency. 5. Completed gift: In case of completed gifts, the rule no consideration no contract does not apply. Explanation (1) to Section 25 states “nothing in this section shall affect the validity as between the donor and donee, of any gift actually made.” Thus, gifts do not require any consideration. 6. Bailment: No consideration is required to affect the contract of bailment. Meaning of bailment :- Section 148 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, defines bailment as the delivery of goods from one person to another for some purpose. This delivery is made upon a contract that post accomplishment of the purpose, the goods will either be returned or disposed of, according to the directions of the person delivering them. Example : Mr. A hand over the keys of his godown to Mr. Y as Mr. Y had deposited his goods in the same. Mr. Y gets possession of godown but not the ownership. As soon as Mr. Y lifts his goods from godown he is liable to hand over the keys back to Mr. A. 7. Charity: If a promisee undertakes the liability on the promise of the person to contribute to charity, there the contract shall be valid. (Kadarnath v. Gorie Mohammad) Q4. Define consideration. What are the legal rules regarding consideration under the Indian Contract Act, 1872? Or Define consideration. State the characteristics of a valid consideration. Sol. (a) Consideration [Section 2(d) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872]: When at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing or promises to do or abstain from doing something, such an act or abstinence or promise is called consideration for the promise. Legal Rules Regarding Consideration 3|Page  Consideration must move at the desire of the promisor: Consideration must be offered by the promisee or the third party at the desire or request of the promisor. This implies “return” element of consideration. (i) Consideration may move from promisee or any other person: In India, consideration may proceed from the promisee or any other person who is not a party to the contract. In other words, there can be a stranger to a consideration but not stranger to a contract. (ii) Executed and executory consideration: A consideration which consists in the performance of an act is said to be executed. When it consists in a promise, it is said to be executory. The promise by one party may be the consideration for an act by some other party, and vice versa. (iii) Consideration may be past, present or future: It is a general principle that consideration is given and accepted in exchange for the promise. The consideration, if past, may be the motive but cannot be the real consideration of a subsequent promise. But in the event of the services being rendered in the past at the request or the desire of the promisor, the subsequent promise is regarded as an admission that the past consideration was not gratuitous. (iv) Consideration need not be adequate: Consideration need not to be of any particular value. It need not be approximately of equal value with the promise for which it is exchanged but it must be something which the law would regard as having some value. (v) Performance of what one is legally bound to perform: The performance of an act by a person who is legally bound to perform the same cannot be consideration for a contract. Hence, a promise to pay money to a witness ivoid, for it is without consideration. Hence such a contract is void for want of consideration. But where a person promises to do more that he is legally bound to do, such a promise provided it is not opposed to public policy, is a good consideration. It should not be vague or uncertain. (vi) Consideration must be real and not illusory: Consideration must be real and must not be illusory. It must be something to which the law attaches some value. If it is legally or physically impossible it is not considered valid consideration. (vii) Consideration must not be unlawful, immoral, or opposed to public policy. Only presence of consideration is not sufficient it must be lawful. Anything which is immoral or opposed to public policy also cannot be valued as valid consideration. Q5. Mr. Y given loan to Mr. G of INR 30,00,000. Mr. G defaulted the loan on due date and debt became time barred. After the time barred debt, Mr. G agreed to settle the full amount to Mr. Y. Whether acceptance of time barred debt Contract is enforceable in law? Sol. Provision Promise to pay time-barred debts - Section 25 (3): Where there is an agreement, made in writing and signed by the debtor or by his agent, to pay wholly or in part a time barred debt, the agreement is valid and binding even though there is no consideration. Analysis and conclusion In the given case, the loan given by Mr. Y to Mr. G has become time barred. Thereafter, Mr. G agreed to make payment of full amount to Mr. Y. 4|Page Referring to above provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 contract entered between parties post time barred debt is valid so, Mr. G is bound to pay the agreed amount to Mr. Y provided the above mentioned conditions of section 25 (3) are fulfilled. Q6. A stranger to a contract cannot sue, however in some cases even a stranger to contract may enforce a claim. Explain. Or “Only a person who is party to a contract can sue on it”. Explain this statement and describe its exceptions, if any. Sol. Though under the Indian Contract Act, 1872, the consideration for an agreement may proceed from a third party, the third party cannot sue on contract. Only a person who is party to a contract can sue on it. Thus, the concept of stranger to consideration is valid and is different from stranger to a contract. The aforesaid rule, that stranger to a contract cannot sue is known as a “doctrine of privity of contract”, is however, subject to certain exceptions. Stranger to a contract cannot sue is known as a “doctrine of privity of contract”. This rule is however, subject to certain exceptions. In other words, even a stranger to a contract may enforce a claim in the following cases: (1) In the case of trust, a beneficiary can enforce his right under the trust, though he was not a party to the contract between the settler and the trustee. (2) In the case of a family settlement, if the terms of the settlement are reduced into writing, the members of family who originally had not been parties to the settlement may enforce the agreement. (3) In the case of certain marriage contracts, or arrangements, a provision may be made for the benefit of a person. The person may enforce the agreement though he is not a party to the agreement. (4) In the case of assignment of a contract, when the benefit under a contract has been assigned, the assignee can enforce the contract. (5) Acknowledgement or estoppel – where the promisor by his conduct acknowledges himself as an agent of the third party, it would result into a binding obligation towards third party. (6) In the case of covenant running with the land, the person who purchases land with notice that the owner of land is bound by certain duties affecting land, the covenant affecting the land may be enforced by the successor of the seller. (7) Contracts entered into through an agent: The principal can enforce the contracts entered by his agent where the agent has acted within the scope of his authority and in the name of the principal. Q7. Mr. Balwant, an old man, by a registered deed of gift, granted certain landed property to Ms. Reema, his daughter. By the terms of the deed, it was stipulated that an annuity of Rs. 20, 000 should be paid every year to Mr. Sawant, who was the brother of Mr. Balwant. On the same day Ms. Reema made a promise to Mr. Sawant and executed in his favour an agreement to give effect to the stipulation. Ms. 5|Page Reema failed to pay the stipulated sum. In an action against her by Mr. Sawant, she contended that since Mr. Sawant had not furnished any consideration, he has no right of action. Examining the provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, decide, whether the contention of Ms. Reema is valid? Sol. Provision In India, consideration may proceed from the promise or any other person who is not a party to the contract. The definition of consideration as given in section 2(d) makes that proposition clear. According to the definition, when at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person does something such an act is consideration. In other words, there can be a stranger to a consideration but not stranger to a contract. Analysis and conclusion In the given problem, Mr. Balwant has entered into a contract with Ms. Reema, but Mr. Sawant has not given any consideration to Ms. Reema but the consideration did flow from Mr. Balwant to Ms. Reema and such consideration from third party is sufficient to the enforce the promise of Ms. Reema, the daughter, to pay an annuity to Mr. Sawant. Further the deed of gift and the promise made by Ms. Reema to Mr. Sawant to pay the annuity were executed simultaneously and therefore they should be regarded as one transaction and there was sufficient consideration for it. Thus, a stranger to the contract cannot enforce the contract but a stranger to the consideration may enforce it. Hence, the contention of Ms. Reema is not valid. Q8. Mr. Ram Lal Birla was a big businessman of city Pune having two sons and one married daughter. He decided to gift his one house to his daughter. For this purpose, he called his lawyer at his house and made a written document for such gift. The lawyer advised him to get the transfer document properly registered. When they both were going for registration of document, they met with an accident and both of them died. Later, his daughter found the document and claimed the house on the basis of that document. Explain, whether she can get the house as gift under the Indian Contract Act, 1872? Sol. Provision Section 25 of Indian Contract Act, 1872 provides that an agreement made without consideration is valid if it is expressed in writing and registered under the law for the time being in force for the registration of documents and is made on account of natural love and affection between parties standing in a near relation to each other. Analysis and conclusion In the instant case, the transfer of house made by Mr. Ram Lal Birla on account of natural love and affection between the parties standing in near relation to each other is written but not registered. Hence, this transfer is not enforceable and his daughter cannot get the house as gift under the Indian Contract Act, 1872. 6|Page THE INDIAN CONTRACT ACT, 1872 UNIT-3 Q1. Examine the validity of the following contracts as per the Indian Contract Act, 1872 giving reasons :- (a) X aged 16 years borrowed a loan of Rs. 50,000 for his personal purposes. Few months later he had become major and could not pay back the amount borrowed, on due date. The lender wants to file a suit against X. (b) J contracts to take in cargo for K at a foreign port. J’s government afterwards declares war against the country in which the port is situated and therefore the contract could not be fulfilled. K wants to file a suit against J. Sol. (a) Provision According to Section 11 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, every person is competent to contract who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject and therefore, a minor is not competent to contract and any agreement with or by a minor is void from the very beginning. A minor cannot ratify it on attaining the majority as the original agreement is void ab initio. According to Section 68 of the Act, a claim for necessaries supplied to a minor is enforceable by law. Necessaries mean those things that are essentially needed by a minor. They cannot include luxuries or costly or unnecessary articles. Analysis and Conclusion In the present case, X, the borrower, was minor at the time of taking the loan, therefore, the agreement was void ab initio. Attaining majority thereafter will not validate the contract nor X can ratify it. The loan was for personal purposes and not for necessaries supplied to him. Hence, the lender cannot file a suit against X for recovery of the loan as it is not enforceable by law. (b) Provision As per Section 56 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 the subsequent or supervening impossibility renders the contract void. Supervening impossibility may take place owing to various circumstances as contemplated under that section, one of which is the declaration of war subsequent to the contract made. Analysis and Conclusion In the instant case the contract when made between J and K was valid but afterwards J’s government declares war against the country in which the port is situated as a result of which the contract becomes void. Hence, K cannot file a suit against J for performance of the contract. Q2. Mr. S aged 58 years was employed in a Government Department. He was going to retire after two years. Mr. D made a proposal to Mr. S to apply for voluntary retirement from his post so that Mr. D can be appointed in his place. Mr. D offered a sum of Rs. 10 Lakhs as consideration to Mr. S in order to induce him to retire. 1|Page Mr. S refused at first instance but when he evaluated the amount offered as consideration is just double of his cumulative remuneration to be received during the tenure of two years of employment, he agreed to receive the consideration and accepted the above agreement to receive money to retire from his office. Whether the above agreement is valid? Explain with reference to provision of Indian Contract Act, 1872. Sol. Provision Section 10 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 provides for the legality of consideration and objects thereto. Section 23 of the said Act also states that every agreement of which the object or consideration is unlawful is void. The given problem talks about entering into an agreement for traffic relating to public office, which is opposed to public policy. Public policy requires that there should be no money consideration for the appointment to an office in which the public is interested. Such consideration paid, being opposed to public policy, is unlawful. Analysis and Conclusion In the given case, Mr. S, who was going to be retired after two years was proposed by Mr. D, to apply for voluntary retirement from his post, in order that he can be appointed in his place. In lieu of that Mr. D offered Mr. S a sum of Rs. 10 lakh as consideration. Mr. S refused initially but later accepted the said offer to receive money to retire from his office. Here, Mr. S’s promise of sale for Mr. D, an employment in the public services is the consideration for Mr. D’s promise to pay Rs. 10 lakh. Therefore, in terms of the above provisions of the Indian Contract Act, the said agreement is not valid. It is void, as the consideration being opposed to public policy, is unlawful. Q3. State with reason(s) whether the following agreements are valid or void: (i) A clause in a contract provided that no action should be brought upon in case of breach. (ii) Where two courts have jurisdiction to try a suit, an agreement between the parties that the suit should be filed in one of those courts alone and not in the other. (iii) X offers to sell his Maruti car to Y. Y believes that X has only Wagon R Car but agrees to buy it. (iv) X, a physician and surgeon, employs Y as an assistant on a salary of Rs. 75,000 per month for a term of two years and Y agrees not to practice as a surgeon and physician during these two years. (i) The given agreement is void. Sol. Reason: As per Section 28 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, this clause is in restraint of legal proceedings because it restricts both the parties from enforcing their legal rights. Note: Alternatively, as per Section 23 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, this clause in the agreement defeats the provision of law and therefore, being unlawful, is treated as void. 2|Page (ii) The given agreement is valid. Reason: An agreement in restraint of legal proceeding is the one by which any party thereto is restricted absolutely from enforcing his rights under a contract through a Court. A contract of this nature is void. However, in the given statement, no absolute restriction is marked on parties on filing of suit. As per the agreement suit may be filed in one of the courts having jurisdiction. (iii) The said agreement is void. Reason: This agreement is void as the two parties are thinking about different subject matters so that there is no real consent and the agreement may be treated as void because of mistake of fact as well as absence of consensus. (iv) The said agreement is valid. Reason: An agreement by which any person is restrained from exercising a lawful profession, trade or business of any kind, is to that extent void. But, as an exception, agreement of service by which an employee binds himself, during the term of his agreement, not to compete with his employer is not in restraint of trade. Q4. Distinguish between wagering agreement and contract of insurance. Or Enumerate the differences between ‘Wagering Agreements’ and ‘Contract of Insurance’ with reference to provision of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Sol. Basis of differences Contracts of Insurance Wagering Agreement Meaning It is a contract to indemnify It is a promise to pay money the loss. or money’s worth on the happening or non- happening of an uncertain event. Consideration The crux of insurance contract There is no consideration is the mutual consideration between the two parties. There (premium and compensation is just gambling for money. amount). Insurable Interest Insured party has insurable There is no property in case of interest in the life or property wageringagreement. sought to be insured. There is betting on other’s life and properties. 47 3|Page Contract of Except life insurance, the Loser has to pay the fixed Indemnity contract of insurance indemnifies amount on the happening of the insured person against loss. uncertain event. Enforceability It is valid and enforceable It is void and unenforceable agreement. Premium Calculation of premium is based No such logical calculations are on scientific and actuarial required in case of wagering calculation of risks. agreement. Public Welfare They are beneficial to the They have been regarded as society against the public welfare. Q5. Examine with reason that the given statement is correct or incorrect “Minor is liable to pay for the necessaries supplied to him”. Sol. Minor is liable to pay for the necessaries supplied to him: This statement is incorrect. The case of necessaries supplied to a minor or to any other person whom such minor is legally bound to support is governed by section 68 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. A claim for necessaries supplied to a minor is enforceable by law, only against minor’s estate, if he possesses. But a minor is not liable for any price that he may promise and never for more than the value of the necessaries. There is no personal liability of the minor, but only his property is liable. Q6. Define Fraud. Whether “mere silence will amount to fraud” as per the Indian Contract Act, 1872? Sol. Definition of Fraud under Section 17: ‘Fraud’ means and includes any of the following acts committed by a party to a contract, or with his connivance, or by his agent, with an intent to deceive another party thereto or his agent, or to induce him to enter into the contract: (1) the suggestion, as a fact, of that which is not true, by one who does not believe it to be true; (2) the active concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the fact; (3) a promise made without any intention of performing it; (4) any other act fitted to deceive; (5) any such act or omission as the law specially declares to be fraudulent. Mere silence will amount to fraud: This statement is incorrect as per the Indian Contract Act, 1872. A party to the contract is under no obligation to disclose the whole truth to the other party. ‘Caveat Emptor’ i.e. let the purchaser beware is the rule applicable to contracts. There is no duty to speak in such cases and silence does not amount to fraud. Similarly, there is no duty to disclose facts which are within the knowledge of both the parties. 4|Page Q7. Explain the term ‘Coercion” and what are the effects of coercion under Indian Contract Act, 1872. Sol. (a) Coercion (Section 15 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872): “Coercion’ is the committing, or threatening to commit, any act forbidden by the Indian Penal Code or the unlawful detaining, or threatening to detain any property, to the prejudice of any person whatever, with the intention of causing any person to enter into an agreement.” Effects of coercion under section 19 of Indian Contract Act, 1872 (i) Contract induced by coercion is voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so obtained. (ii) As to the consequences of the rescission of voidable contract, the party rescinding a void contract should, if he has received any benefit, thereunder from the other party to the contract, restore such benefit so far as may be applicable, to the person from whom it was received. (iii) A person to whom money has been paid or anything delivered under coercion must repay or return it. Q8. Mr. X a businessman has been fighting a long drawn litigation with Mr. Y an industrialist. To support his legal campaign he enlists the services of Mr. C a Judicial officer stating that the amount of Rs.10 lakhs would be paid to him if he does not take up the brief of Mr. Y. Mr. C agrees but, at the end of the litigation Mr. X refuses to pay to Mr. C. Decide whether Mr. C can recover the amount promised by Mr. X under the provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872? Sol. Provision The problem as asked in the question is based on Section 10 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. This Section says that all agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of the parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object and are not expressly declared to be void. Further, Section 23 also states that every agreement of which the object is unlawful is void. Accordingly, one of the essential elements of a valid contract in the light of the said provision is that the agreement entered into must not be which the law declares to be either illegal or void. An illegal agreement is an agreement expressly or impliedly prohibited by law. A void agreement is one without any legal effects. Analysis and conclusion The given instance is a case of interference with the course of justice and results as opposed to public policy. This can also be called as an agreement in restraint of legal proceedings. This agreement restricts one’s right to enforce his legal rights. Such an agreement has been expressly declared to be void under section 28 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Hence, Mr. C in the given case cannot recover the amount of Rs. 10 lakh promised by Mr. X because it is a void agreement and cannot be enforced by law. 5|Page Q9. Define Misrepresentation and Fraud. Sol. Definition of Fraud under Section 17 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872: ‘Fraud’ means and includes any of the following acts committed by a party to a contract, or with his connivance, or by his agent, with an intent to deceive another party thereto or his agent, or to induce him to enter into the contract: (1) the suggestion, as a fact, of that which is not true, by one who does not believe it to be true; (2) the active concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the fact; (3) a promise made without any intention of performing it; (4) any other act fitted to deceive; (5) any such act or omission as the law specially declares to be fraudulent. As per Section 18 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, misrepresentation means and includes- (1) the positive assertion, in a manner not warranted by the information of the person making it, of that which is not true, though he believes it to be true; (2) any breach of duty which, without an intent to deceive, gains an advantage to the person committing it, or anyone claiming under him; by misleading another to his prejudice or to the prejudice of anyone claiming under him; (3) causing, however, innocently, a party to an agreement to make a mistake as to the substance of the thing which is the subject of the agreement. Q10. Distinction between fraud and misrepresentation. Sol. Basis of difference Fraud Misrepresentation Intention To deceive the other party There is no such intention to by hiding the truth. deceive the other party. Knowledge of truth The person making the The person making the suggestion believes that the statement believes it to be statement as untrue. true, although it is not true. Rescission of the The injured party can The injured party is entitled contract and claim for repudiate the contract and to repudiate the contract or damages claim damages. sue for restitution but cannot claim the damages. Basis of difference Fraud Misrepresentation Means to discover the The party using the Party can always plead that truth fraudulent act cannot secure the injured party had the or protect himself by saying means to discover the truth. that the injured party had means to discover the truth. 6|Page Q11. ‘X’ agreed to become an assistant for 2 years to ‘Y’ who was practicing Chartered Accountant at Jodhpur. It was also agreed that during the term of agreement ‘X’ will not practice as a Chartered Accountant on his own account within 20 kms of the office of ‘Y’ at Jodhpur. At the end of one year, ‘X’ left the assistantship of ‘Y’ and started practice on his own account within the said area of 20 kms. Referring to the provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, decide whether ‘X’ could be restrained from doing so? Sol. Provision Agreement in Restraint of Trade: Section 27 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 deals with agreements in restraint of trade. According to the said section, every agreement by which any person is restrained from exercising a lawful profession, trade or business of any kind, is to that extent void. However, in the case of the service agreements restraint of trade is valid. In an agreement of service by which a person binds himself during the term of agreement not to take service with anyone else directly or indirectly to promote any business in direct competition with that of his employer is not in restraint of trade, so it is a valid contract. Analysis and Conclusion In the instant case, agreement entered by ‘X’ with ‘Y’ is reasonable, and do not amount to restraint of trade and hence enforceable. Therefore, ‘X’ can be restrained by an injunction from practicing on his own account in within the said area of 20 Kms for another one year. Q12. A student was induced by his teacher to sell his brand new car to the latter at less than the purchase price to secure more marks in the examination. Accordingly the car was sold. However, the father of the student persuaded him to sue his teacher. State on what ground the student can sue the teacher? Sol. Provision A contract brought as a result of coercion, undue influence, fraud or misrepresentation would be voidable at the option of the person whose consent was caused. According to section 16 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, “A contract is said to be induced by ‘undue influence’ where the relations subsisting between the parties are such that one of the parties is in a position to dominate the will of the other and he uses that position to obtain an unfair advantage over the other”. A person is deemed to be in position to dominate the will of another: (a) Where he holds a real or apparent authority over the other; or (b) Where he stands in a fiduciary relationship to the other; or (c) Where he makes a contract with a person whose mental capacity is temporarily or permanently affected by reason of age, illness or mental or bodily distress for example, an old illiterate person. 7|Page Analysis and conclusion A contract brought as a result of coercion, undue influence, fraud or misrepresentation would be voidable at the option of the person whose consent was caused. hence Yes, the student can sue his teacher on the ground of undue influence under the provisions of Indian Contract Act, 1872. Q13. Explain the term “coercion” and describe its effect on the validity of a contract? Sol. “Coercion” is the committing or threatening to commit any act forbidden by the Indian Penal Code 1860, or the unlawful detaining or threatening to detain any property, to the prejudice of any person whatever, with the intention of causing any person to enter into an agreement. (Section 15 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872). It is also important to note that it is immaterial whether the Indian Penal Code, 1860 is or is not in force at the place where the coercion is employed. Effects on validity: According to section 19 of the Act, when consent to an agreement is caused by coercion, the contract is voidable at the option of the party, whose consent was so caused. The aggrieved party, whose consent was so caused can enforce the agreement or treat it as void and rescind it. It is seen that in all these cases though the agreement amounts to a contract, it is voidable. The injured party might insist on being placed in the same position in which he might have been had the vitiating circumstances not been present. Where a contract is voidable and the party entitled to avoid it decides to do so by rescinding it, he must restore any benefit which he might have received from the other party. He cannot avoid the contract and at the same time enjoy the benefit under the rescinded/avoided contract. (Section 64) Q14. “Though a minor is not competent to contract, nothing in the Contract Act prevents him from making the other party bound to the minor”. Discuss. Sol. Minor can be a beneficiary or can take benefit out of a contract : Though a minor is not competent to contract, nothing in the Contract Act prevents him from making the other party bound to the minor. For example: A promissory note duly executed in favour of a minor is not void and can be sued upon by him, because he though incompetent to contract, may yet accept a benefit. A minor cannot become partner in a partnership firm. However, he may with the consent of all the partners, be admitted to the benefits of partnership (Section 30 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932). Q15. P sells by auction to Q a horse which P knows to be unsound. The horse appears to be sound but P knows about the unsoundness of the horse. Is this contract valid in the following circumstances: (a) If P says nothing about the unsoundness of the horse to Q. (b) If P says nothing about it to Q who is P’s daughter who has just come of age. (c) If Q says to P “If you do not deny it, I shall assume that the horse is sound.” P says nothing Sol. According to section 17 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, mere silence as to facts likely to affect the willingness of a person to enter into a contract is not fraud, unless the circumstances of the 8|Page case are such that, regard being had to them, it is the duty of the person keeping silence to speak, or unless his silence is, in itself, equivalent to speech. Hence, in the instant case, (a) This contract is valid since as per section 17 mere silence as to the facts likely to affect the willingness of a person to enter into a contract is not fraud. Here, it is not the duty of the seller to disclose defects. (b) This contract is not valid since as per section 17 it becomes P’s duty to tell Q about the unsoundness of the horse because a fiduciary relationship exists between P and his daughter Q. Here, P’s silence is equivalent to speech and hence amounts to fraud. (c) This contract is not valid since as per section 17, P’s silence is equivalent to speech and hence amounts to fraud. Q16. Explain the concept of ‘misrepresentation’ in matters of contract. Sol. Misrepresentation: According to Section 18 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, misrepresentation means and includes- (1) the positive assertion, in a manner not warranted by the information of the person making it, of that which is not true, though he believes it to be true; (2) any breach of duty which, without an intent to deceive, gains an advantage to the person committing it, or any one claiming under him; by misleading another to his prejudice or to the prejudice of any one claiming under him; (3) causing, however, innocently, a party to an agreement to make a mistake as to the substance of the thing which is the subject of the agreement. Q17. Sohan induced Suraj to buy his motorcycle saying that it was in a very good condition. After taking the motorcycle, Suraj complained that there were many defects in the motorcycle. Sohan proposed to get it repaired and promised to pay 40% cost of repairs. After a few days, the motorcycle did not work at all. Now Suraj wants to rescind the contract. Decide giving reasons. Sol. Provision The aggrieved party, in case of misrepresentation by the other party, can avoid or rescind the contract [Section 19, Indian Contract Act, 1872]. The aggrieved party loses the right to rescind the contract if he, after becoming aware of the misrepresentation, takes a benefit under the contract or in some way affirms it. Analysis and Conclusion Accordingly, in the given case, Suraj could not rescind the contract, as his acceptance to the offer of Sohan to bear 40% of the cost of repairs impliedly amount to final acceptance of the sale. Q18. Discuss the essentials of Undue Influence as per the Indian Contract Act, 1872 Or Explain the circumstances in which the person is deemed to be in a position to dominate the will of the other person under the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Sol. The essential ingredients under this provision are: 9|Page (1) Relation between the parties: A person can be influenced by the other when a near relation between the two exists. (2) Position to dominate the will: Relation between the parties exist in such a manner that one of them is in a position to dominate the will of the other. A person is deemed to be in such position in the following circumstances: (a) Real and apparent authority: Where a person holds a real authority over the other as in the case of master and servant, doctor and patient and etc. Example: A father, by reason of his authority over the son can dominate the will of the son. (b) Fiduciary relationship: Where relation of trust and confidence exists between the parties to a contract. Such type of relationship exists between father and son, solicitor and client, husband and wife, creditor and debtor, etc. Example: By reason of fiduciary relationship, a solicitor can dominate the will of his client and a trustee can dominate the will of the beneficiary. Example: A spiritual guru induced his devotee to gift to him the whole of his property in return of a promise of salvation of the devotee. Held, the consent of the devotee was given under undue influence. Here, the relationship was fiduciary relationship between Guru and devotee and Guru was in a position to dominate the will of devotee. (c) Mental distress: An undue influence can be used against a person to get his consent on a contract where the mental capacity of the person is temporarily or permanently affected by the reason of mental or bodily distress, illness or of old age. Example: A doctor is deemed to be in a position to dominate the will of his patient enfeebled by protracted illness. (d) Unconscionable bargains: Where one of the parties to a contract is in a position to dominate the will of the other and the contract is apparently unconscionable i.e., unfair, it is presumed by law that consent must have been obtained by undue influence. Unconscionable bargains are witnessed mostly in money-lending transactions and in gifts. Example: A youth of 18 years of age, spend thrift and a drunkard, borrowed Rs. 90,000 on a bond bearing compound interest at 2% per mensem (p.m.). It was held by the court that the transaction is unconscionable, the rate of interest charged being so exorbitant [Kirpa Ram vs. Sami-Ud-din Ad. Khan (1903)] (3) The object must be to take undue advantage: Where the person is in a position to influence the will of the other in getting consent, must have the object to take advantage of the other. Example: A teacher asks her daughter to get marry to one of his brilliant students. Both the girl and boy were smart, settled and intelligent. Here the teacher had a relation which can have influence on both of them. But as no undue advantage of such influence was taken such contract of marriage is said to be made by free consent. Q19. What is a wagering agreement? Describe the transactions which resembles with wagering transactions but are not void. Sol. Wagering agreement (Section 30 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872): An agreement by way of a wager is void. It is an agreement involving payment of a sum of money upon the determination of an uncertain event. 10 | P a g e The essence of a wager is that each side should stand to win or lose, depending on the way an uncertain event takes place in reference to which the chance is taken and in the occurrence of which neither of the parties has legitimate interest. For example, A agrees to pay Rs. 50,000 to B if it rains, and B promises to pay a like amount to A if it does not rain, the agreement will be by way of wager. But if one of the parties has control over the event, agreement is not a wager. Transactions resembling with wagering transaction but are not void (i) Chit fund: Chit fund does not come within the scope of wager (Section 30). In case of a chit fund, a certain number of persons decide to contribute a fixed sum for a specified period and at the end of a month, the amount so contributed is paid to the lucky winner of the lucky draw. (ii) Commercial transactions or share market transactions: In these transactions in which delivery of goods or shares is intended to be given or taken, do not amount to wagers. (iii) Games of skill and Athletic Competition: Crossword puzzles, picture competitions and athletic competitions where prizes are awarded on the basis of skill and intelligence are the games of skill and hence such competition are valid. According to the Prize Competition Act, 1955 prize competition in games of skill are not wagers provided the prize money does not exceed Rs. 1,000. (iv) A contract of insurance: A contract of insurance is a type of contingent contract and is valid under law and these contracts are different from wagering agreements. Q20. Mr. SHYAM owned a motor car. He approached Mr. HARISH and offered to sell his motor car for Rs. 3,00,000. Mr. SHYAM told Mr. HARISH that the motor car is running at the rate of 20 KMs per litre of petrol. Both the fuel meter and the speed meter of the car were working perfectly. Mr. HARISH agreed with the proposal of Mr. SHYAM and took delivery of the car by paying Rs. 3,00,000/- to Mr. SHYAM. After 10 days, Mr. HARISH came back with the car and stated that the claim made by Mr. SHYAM regarding fuel efficiency was not correct and therefore there was a case of misrepresentation. Referring to the provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, decide and write whether Mr. HARISH can rescind the contract on the above ground. Sol. Provision As per the provisions of Section 19 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, when consent to an agreement is caused by coercion, fraud or misrepresentation, the agreement is a contract voidable at the option of the party whose consent was so caused. A party to contract, whose consent was caused by fraud or misrepresentation, may, if he thinks fit, insist that the contract shall be performed, and that he shall be put in the position in which he would have been if the representations made had been true. Exception: If such consent was caused by misrepresentation or by silence, fraudulent within the meaning of section 17, the contract, nevertheless, is not voidable if the party whose consent was so caused had the means of discovering the truth with ordinary diligence. 11 | P a g e Analysis and Conclusion In the situation given in the question, both the fuel meter and the speed meter of the car were working perfectly, Mr. HARISH had the means of discovering the truth with ordinary diligence. Therefore, the contract is not voidable. Hence, Mr. HARISH cannot rescind the contract on the above ground. Q21. Chandan was suffering from

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