BU 3073 Unit 6.pdf

ORGANIZING DATA SCHOOL OF BUSINESS BU1523 Gather and evaluate data from primary and secondary sources; Agenda Extract relevant and useful data for the report Organize data logically and coherently in an appropriate report format GENERAL ACADEMIC ESSAY STRUCTURE ELEMENTS OF STYLE INTRODUCTI...

ORGANIZING DATA SCHOOL OF BUSINESS BU1523 Gather and evaluate data from primary and secondary sources; Agenda Extract relevant and useful data for the report Organize data logically and coherently in an appropriate report format GENERAL ACADEMIC ESSAY STRUCTURE ELEMENTS OF STYLE INTRODUCTIONS • Think of an introduction as an upsidedown triangle. • At the top, it has a broad base which would be in this case background, general context or a general comment about the topic which could grab the reader’s attention. • The middle would be a bit narrower, and you would introduce the sources and the main context of the issue (who, what, where, when, and how). • The tip of the triangle would be your thesis statement (main argument/theme); at this point the topic is narrowed to a fine point like the tip of a triangle. INTRODUCTIONS THE INVERTED TRIANGLE HOW TO WRITE AN INTERESTING, EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTION? • Find a startling statistic that illustrates the seriousness of the problem you will address. • Quote an expert (but be sure to introduce him or her first). • Mention a common misperception that your thesis will argue against. • Give some background information necessary for understanding the report. • Use a brief narrative or anecdote that exemplifies your reason for choosing the topic. In an assignment that encourages personal reflection, you may draw on your own experiences; in a research essay, the narrative may illustrate a common real-world scenario. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC INTRODUCTIONS: AVOIDING COMMON PITFALLS This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC • Don't provide dictionary definitions, especially of words your audience already knows. • Don't repeat the assignment specifications using the professor's wording. • Don't give details and indepth explanations that really belong in your body paragraphs. You can usually postpone background material to the body of the essay. ELEMENTS OF STYLE CONCLUSIONS • A conclusion does not need to be a summary of the entire essay. • Yes, it can restate the main purpose in a different way, but usually a conclusion gives a reader something to think about after finishing: a food for thought moment. • What are the wider implications? Are there any loose ends you haven’t addressed? ELEMENTS OF STYLE CONCLUSIONS (cont.) • Not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your thesis. If you wish to summarize—and often you must—do so in fresh language. • Involves critical thinking. Reflect upon the significance of what you've written. Try to convey some closing thoughts about the larger implications of your argument. • Broaden your focus a bit at the end of the essay. A good last sentence leaves your reader with something to think about, a concept in some way illuminated by what you've written in the paper. • For most reports, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC CONCLUSIONS THE UPSIDE-RIGHT TRIANGLE HOW TO WRITE AN INTERESTING, EFFECTIVE CONCLUSION? • If your report deals with a problem, warn readers of the possible consequences. • Recommend a specific course of action. • Use quotations or expert opinions to lend authority to the conclusion you have reached. • Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual image • Return to an anecdote, example, or quotation that you introduced in your introduction, but add further insight that derives from the body of your essay. • In a science or business report, mention worthwhile avenues for future research on your topic. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC ELEMENTS OF STYLE BODY PARAGRAPHS • A paragraph can be thought of as a mini-essay. • Composed of three main parts: a topic sentence, explanation/evidence addressing the topic, and a conclusion that relates it back to the thesis main idea. • It captures a single idea which builds on the other ideas (paragraphs) in order to support the argument. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY HOW TO WRITE INTERESTING, EFFECTIVE BODY PARAGRAPHS? • Present the topic of the paragraph with a clear topic sentence. • Stay focused and unified by staying on the topic outlined by the topic sentence. • Provide evidence/examples that support the topic sentence. • Discuss the evidence, so that readers understand what the evidence means and why it is important. • Conclude by showing how this paragraph relates to the report in general and “main idea” or “thesis statement.” • The best concluding sentences also provide a smooth transition into the next paragraph. BODY PARAGRAPHS: AVOIDING COMMON PITFALLS When writing body paragraphs, it is crucial to avoid: • Summarizing a lot of research/the publications but contain little explanation or discussion. • Using quotes that are not discussed in much length. • Using quotes do not advance the paper’s argument as effectively as they could • Using quotes do not explain to readers what the differences/similarities mean, or how your observations of these publications support the paper’s argument. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND ELEMENTS OF STYLE TOPIC SENTENCES • When writing an essay, you must use ‘topic sentences.’ • These are sentences that go at the beginning of each paragraph in which you are about to discuss a new topic. • These sentences let the reader know what the paragraph will discuss (what the next point to be discussed in the essay is) and also relate the paragraph back to the introduction. • This gives the essay a nice flow and shows that it has been well organized. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC (Harrison, 2021) Problem: The supporting sentences are unrelated to the specific focus in the controlling idea. Check the example, although the topic is somewhat related, the examples are not relevant. Chocolate is not only delicious; it also has physiological effects. Junk food in general can be consumed as a comfort food. Even though we know chips, chocolate, and sweets are unhealthy, they can give us a temporary lift when we feel depressed or bored. TOPIC SENTENCE EXAMPLE The reader never finds out about what the physiological effects of chocolate are as promised. In addition, suddenly the writer starts talking not just about chocolate but everything else, and therefore the paragraph loses direction. Solution: The controlling idea should inform the specific supporting sentences that follow as per the below example. Chocolate is not only delicious; it also has physiological effects. Chocolate releases endorphins, which are feel-good chemicals. It also contains caffeine, which provides us with energy. In addition, real dark chocolate contains a cannabinoid, which can provide a hypnotic effect when consumed in significant quantities. (Harrison, 2021) ELEMENTS OF STYLE QUOTATIONS • Often quotes or examples are nice ways to add to the discussion of a topic. • Nevertheless, that argument is meant for you to make, so excessive quoting can weaken an argument if those quotations are not analyzed, explained, elaborated on etc. • The same thing can happen with too many examples that are not explained. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC A QUOTATION is introduced by a sentence that also makes a claim or expands on the author's claim. This will also dedicate more discussion to those quotes. For example: Signal phrase The author argues that frogs are integral to the bog ecosystem in the lower mainland and that a protection program should be in place, “frogs provide a food source for many at-risk animals which may have already lost habitat and food resources” (Smith, 2021). APA In-text citation In this example, the reader gets a sense of where the writer is going with this idea and quotation. Also, do you see how I used a signal phrase and a comma to attach a quote to the end of a full sentence? Quotation attached to the end of a full sentence HOW TO INCOPRATE EFFECTIVE QUOTATIONS Quoting in academic papers is done for a few reasons: • The chosen quote is quite striking or important • The quote backs up or adds credibility to your argument • The quote is worth analyzing in-depth • The quote is from a differing argumentative position, and you will be disputing it in detail QUOTATIONS: AVOIDING COMMON PITFALLS • Using too many quotations takes away from an author's voice. • Your voice (AKA: logic, rhetoric, interpretation, analysis) is being suffocated by other people's words. • A rule of thumb for an academic essay is to have 1-2 direct quotations per page. • This ensures a good balance between evidence (quotation) and interpretation & analysis (your voice). • A good strategy to fix over-usage of quotations is to read through each one and ask yourself whether it's really necessary to make your point. • If you think it is, ask yourself whether a paraphrase (restating it in your own words) might be a better method of highlighting the information. ELEMENTS OF STYLE APA CITATIONS Put citation material in each paragraph that takes from a source. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC ELEMENTS OF STYLE APA CITATIONS (cont.) • Preferably, citations will come after you have paraphrased a source each time. • A paragraph will then be a mixture of paraphrases/citations and your own analysis of those sources. • While it may be convenient to just cite at the end of a paragraph or 3 paragraphs that use the same source, it may create confusion for the reader; ie. Did the writer use the source in the previous paragraphs or not? • Where do paraphrasing or summary end and your ideas begin? • That sort of confusion can lead to accusations of plagiarism unfortunately. APA STYLE is used in the social sciences and is governed by two basic ideas. #1) a scientific paper attempts to show something that has already been proven true, so it calls for the past or present perfect tense when you cite the work of others. #2) the year of publication is important, so you need to feature it immediately after any named source in the text. Use the present tense for generalizations and personal comments. Use the past or present perfect tenses only to introduce the work of cited sources. • EXAMPLE: • “Evidence of the rise of the heroin use exists for every age group, even children. Burroughs and Bruce (1996) reported on five incidents of heroin overdose in the under 10 age group.” ELEMENTS OF STYLE ARGUMENTATION There is a very specific art to developing strong, clear arguments. Three major things to consider in relation to argumentation are: 1. Avoid generalization, vagueness or claims that you are unable to support. 2. Ensure that your argument follows a logical progression and that you help to “walk” your reader through your argument, not leaving them to make leaps of logic. Argumentation = logical connections and supports 3. Make use of what is known as the “given-new contract” when presenting information. The given-new contract is helpful in establishing a sense of cohesion in a paper as it ensures that your ideas are connected to one another and are developing from/supporting each other. Here is an example: “I live in an old farmhouse. Farmhouses in my town were built between 1819 and 1910 by early settlers. When they first arrived, the settlers likely built homes on around 5 acres of land, to be farmed and cultivated. The land has, since, been parceled off though and so my farmhouse now sits on less than 0.5 acres.” This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY ELEMENTS OF STYLE: SYNTHESIS • Synthesis means to combine a number of different pieces into a whole. • Synthesis is about concisely summarizing and linking different sources in order to review the literature on a topic, make recommendations, and connect your practice to the research. • Synthesis usually goes together with analysis because you break down a concept/idea into its important parts/point (analysis), so you can draw useful conclusions or make decisions about the topic or problem (synthesis). ELEMENTS OF STYLE: CLARITY When writing concisely ask yourself questions such as: 1) Is this word, sentence, or paragraph as specific as possible? 2) Are there any pertinent details missing? 3) Does this idea need an example? 4) Have I chosen word that are natural to my vocabulary, but precise? 5) How could I express this idea more specifically? This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND ELEMENTS OF STYLE: LOGICAL FLOW Two things contribute to the flow of sentences within a paragraph: 1. Sentence Length Varying sentence length is not only a classic tip for making sentences and paragraphs flow, it’s a good writing skill. Readers get bored when all sentences are the same length! Shake it up a little, fellow scribes, and find a natural balance for irregular sentence lengths. 2. Logical Progression Of Thought Writing good sentences and paragraphs involves editing and revising with different hats on: content (information), and mechanics (sentence flow, literary techniques, grammar, etc). These are very different aspects of good writing, and few writers can edit for both at the same time! This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY ELEMENTS OF STYLE: COMPOSITION AND FLOW OF IDEAS • You want to strive for clarity and flow of ideas. • You want to avoid choppy and disorganized passages. There are two aspects, which attribute to the smooth flow of ideas: cohesion and coherence. #1) Cohesion is a sense of flow, which shows the relationship between sentences, i.e., how easily the reader moves from sentence to sentence. #2) Coherence is a sense of the whole when all the sentences in a piece of writing add up to create a complete picture. In Writing, Cohesion and Coherence mean easy movement through ideas. They allow the writer to control the smooth flow of ideas and present ideas in a comprehensive way, which reduces readers’ effort. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY ELEMENTS OF STYLE: AVOIDING REDUNDANCY Redundancies are phrases or words that are repeated in a sentence. Using redundancies leads to awkward and wordy sentences, which can make them difficult to understand. The following sentence contains redundancies (was conducted, with): "The experiment was conducted in the lab and was conducted using a self-administered survey." Eliminating redundancies reduces word count and makes sentences easier to understand: "The experiment was conducted in the lab using a self-administered survey." ELEMENTS OF STYLE: WORDINESS This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC Wordiness can be a difficult issue to work through and ultimately it takes practice. It often takes looking at each sentence and asking yourself if all of that sentence is necessary. WORDY: “A campus rally was attended by more than a thousand students. Five students were arrested by campus police for disorderly conduct, while several others are charged by campus administrators with organizing a public meeting without being issued a permit to do so.” This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC WORDINESS: EXAMPLES CONCISE: “Five out of more than a thousand students at a campus rally were arrested for disorderly conduct, and several others were charged by campus administrators with organizing a public meeting without a permit.” Notice how by combining sentences and using specific words helps with readability? I feel that the essay overall could use with some editing for wordiness. MAKE SENTENCES CONCISE BY ELIMINATING WORDY PHRASES: Wordy: In a situation in which a class is overenrolled, you may request that the instructor force-add you. Concise: When a class is overenrolled, you may ask the instructor to force-add you. Wordy: I will now make a few observations concerning the matter of contingency funds. Concise: I will now make a few observations about contingency funds. Wordy: There is a need for more careful inspection of all welds. Concise: You must inspect all welds more carefully. or inspect all welds more carefully. ELEMENTS OF STYLE: ACTIVE VOICE VS PASSIVE VOICE • Passive voice isn't wrong, but it's often a poor way to present your thoughts. • Another important point is that passive sentences aren't incorrect; it’s just that they often aren't the best way to phrase your thoughts. • Sometimes passive voice is awkward and other times it’s vague. • Also, passive voice is usually wordy, so you can tighten your writing if you replace passive sentences with active sentence. • When you put sentences in passive voice, it's easy to leave out the person or thing doing the action. For example, "Amy is loved," is passive. The problem with that sentence is that you don't know who loves Amy. ELEMENTS OF STYLE: TRANSITIONS Transitions It is recommended that you put 1 or 2 sentences at the end of each paragraph that give the discussion some finality and which lead smoothly into the next topic. Transitional Devices Transitional devices are like connectors between parts of your paper. In a way, they act like "bridges" to help develop ideas. Transitional devices are words or phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another. Finally, they connect sentences and paragraphs together to give the writing continuity, and contribute to the overall flow. Examples: Whereas, Besides, Nevertheless, Consequently, Likewise, In contrast References Apa style introduction. APA Style Introduction - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_style_introduction.html Harrison, S. (2021). Mastering topic sentences. UCT English Language Centre. Retrieved from https://uctlanguagecentre.com/academic-english/mastering-topic-sentences