botany m module 2

Semester 1: Fascinating world of plant sciences Module 2: Wonders in Plant Kingdom and Traditional Approaches in Plant Science (15 Hours)  Traditional approach and methods: ⚫ 1) Field Studies ⚫ a. Observation and Description:...

Semester 1: Fascinating world of plant sciences Module 2: Wonders in Plant Kingdom and Traditional Approaches in Plant Science (15 Hours)  Traditional approach and methods: ⚫ 1) Field Studies ⚫ a. Observation and Description: ⚫ Taxonomic Classification: Early botanists relied heavily on visual identification and morphological features (leaves, flowers, fruit) to classify plants. Key figures include Carl Linnaeus, who developed binomial nomenclature. ⚫ Herbarium Collections: Pressed plant specimens were collected and preserved for study and reference, allowing for comparative analysis over time. ⚫ b. Ecological Surveys ⚫ Habitat Assessment: Traditional botanists documented plant distributions and their relationships with environmental factors. ⚫ Phenology: Observations of seasonal changes in plant life cycles were recorded, providing insights into environmental adaptations. ⚫ 2). Cultivation Techniques ⚫ a. Agricultural Practices ⚫ Traditional Farming: Methods such as crop rotation, intercropping, and the use of indigenous knowledge played a crucial role in the cultivation of plants. ⚫ Medicinal Plant Cultivation: Knowledge of local flora was used for the cultivation of medicinal plants, often passed down through generations. ⚫ b. Selective Breeding: Early practices in selecting plants for desirable traits (size, yield, resilience) contributed to the domestication of various species. ⚫ 3). Morphological and Anatomical Studies ⚫ a. Microscopy: Early microscopes were used to study plant cell structures, leading to discoveries about plant anatomy and physiology. Examination of cross-sections of stems, leaves, and roots provided insights into vascular systems and tissue types. ⚫ b. Plant Anatomy: Dissections and careful study of internal structures (xylem, phloem) were conducted to understand functions and growth patterns. ⚫ 4. Reproductive Biology ⚫ a. Pollination Studies: Observation of plant reproductive strategies, including pollinator interactions, was a key focus. Early botanists documented relationships between plants and their pollinators. ⚫ b. Seed Dispersal: Studies on how seeds are dispersed by wind, water, or animals contributed to understanding plant life cycles and distribution. ⚫ 5. Phytogeography ⚫ The study of the geographical distribution of plants based on climate, topography, and other ecological factors helped establish patterns of biodiversity. ⚫ Exploration and mapping of flora in different regions were crucial in understanding plant habitats and adaptations. ⚫ 6. Ethnobotany ⚫ The relationship between people and plants, including traditional uses of plants for food, medicine, and cultural practices, has been a significant aspect of botany. ⚫ Indigenous knowledge systems have contributed to the understanding of plant properties and applications. ⚫ 7. Traditional Knowledge and Practices ⚫ Oral traditions and local ecological knowledge were vital in preserving plant information. Communities often had extensive knowledge of local flora and their uses. ⚫ Sustainable practices, such as selective harvesting and polyculture, were traditionally employed to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem health. ⚫ 8. Limitations of Traditional Methods ⚫ Subjectivity: Reliance on visual identification can lead to misclassification and bias. ⚫ Lack of Standardization: Variations in methods and terminology could complicate communication and scientific progress. ⚫ Technological Constraints: Limited access to advanced tools and techniques, such as molecular biology and genetic analysis, restricted the depth of research.  Exploration: Field Visit. Field Visit refers to the practice of going into natural environments to observe, study, and collect plant specimens. This method is vital for understanding plant diversity, ecology, and the relationships between species and their environments. Objectives of Field Visits 1.Species Identification and Collection To identify and collect plant specimens for herbarium records. To document rare or endemic species and their habitats. 2.Ecological Study To observe plant communities and their interactions with other organisms. To assess the effects of environmental factors (soil type, climate, etc.) on plant distribution. 3.Data Collection To gather quantitative data on plant populations, including density, height, and biomass. To record phenological changes, such as flowering times and fruiting. 4.Conservation Assessment To evaluate the health of ecosystems and identify threats to biodiversity. To study the impacts of human activity on local flora. Preparation for Field Visits 1.Planning 1. Research: Study existing literature on the target area’s flora and ecology. 2. Permits: Obtain necessary permits for research in protected areas. 2.Equipment and Supplies 1. Field Tools: GPS, plant presses, field notebooks, cameras, and measuring devices. 2. Safety Gear: Proper clothing, first aid kits, and navigation tools. 3.Team Composition: Involving botanists, ecologists, and sometimes local experts can enhance the depth of study. Methodologies During Field Visits 1. Site Selection: Choosing sites based on ecological zones, rare species presence, or specific research questions. 2. Mapping and Navigation: Using GPS and maps to navigate and record locations of collected specimens. 3. Plant Collection Techniques a. Herbarium Specimen Collection: Collecting samples with care to avoid damaging the ecosystem. b. Photographic Documentation: Taking photos for reference, especially for species identification. 4. Observation and Sampling a. Random Sampling: Using quadrats or transects to systematically assess plant populations. b. Environmental Measurements: Recording soil pH, moisture, temperature, and light conditions. 5. Interviews with Local Communities: Engaging with local inhabitants can provide insights into traditional uses of plants and changes in flora over time. Data Recording and Analysis 1.Field Notes Detailed notes on plant characteristics, habitat conditions, and ecological interactions should be kept. 2.Specimen Preparation Pressing and drying collected specimens for herbarium storage, ensuring they are labeled correctly with collection data. 3.Data Analysis Statistical analysis of collected data to identify patterns and draw conclusions about plant distributions and ecological relationships.  Collection of plant material: significance & tools used Significance of Plant Collection 1.Biodiversity Documentation Plant collections serve as a vital record of biodiversity, helping scientists catalog and understand the variety of plant species in different ecosystems. They enable researchers to monitor changes in species distributions over time, which is crucial for assessing the impacts of environmental changes and human activities. 2.Taxonomic Research Collections are fundamental for taxonomic studies, aiding in the classification and identification of plant species. Herbarium specimens provide essential reference material for resolving taxonomic questions and understanding evolutionary relationships. 3. Ecological Studies Plant collections facilitate ecological research by providing data on species interactions, community structure, and habitat preferences. They help researchers understand plant responses to environmental factors, such as climate change, soil composition, and habitat fragmentation. 4.Conservation Efforts Collections play a key role in conservation biology, providing crucial data for identifying rare, threatened, or endangered species. They support efforts to develop conservation strategies and management plans to protect biodiversity and restore ecosystems. 5.Education and Public Awareness Herbarium collections are valuable resources for education, providing tangible examples for students and the public to learn about plant diversity, ecology, and conservation. They enhance awareness of plant importance and the need for biodiversity conservation. 6. Medicinal and Economic Research Many plant collections are used to explore the potential medicinal properties of plants, leading to the discovery of new pharmaceuticals. They also inform agricultural practices by providing insights into crop varieties, pest resistance, and sustainable farming methods. 7.Cultural and Historical Significance Collections can reflect the historical use of plants by various cultures, including traditional medicine, food sources, and materials for crafts. They help preserve knowledge about indigenous plants and their significance to local communities. 8.Global Collaboration Plant collections contribute to global biodiversity databases and networks, fostering collaboration among researchers, institutions, and conservation organizations worldwide. They support international efforts in biodiversity assessment, conservation strategies, and research initiatives.  Basic principles of working on collecting, preparing and preserving of collections 1. Collect specimens from as many different habitats as possible to ensure that environmental variation does not affect the data. 2. Plants should only be collected where a sufficient number of observable plants of that species are present (except in a case when a species is scarce or endangered in its habitat). 3. Representative, mature, intact and undamaged specimens are collected. 4. The specimens are determined / identified (if possible) on the spot (of collecting). 5. collected specimens are fixed (for a wet collection) or their preservation starts with drying (for a herbarium collection). 6. basic data on the collection spot (habitat) are recorded in the filed labels attached to the collected material.  Equipment and Tools Used during collection Field Notebook: For recording observations, sketches, and field notes. Camera: For photographic documentation of habitats and specific plants. GPS Device: To mark precise locations for future reference. Collecting Tools: Scissors, small spades, and trowels for uprooting plants; bags for specimen transport. Plant Press: A device for flattening and preserving specimens in a dried state. Consists of two boards and straps or elastic bands to hold specimens in place during drying. Collecting Bags: Vasculum or Polythene Bags Labels: To uniquely tag each collection and specimen. Preservation: Killing & Fixing. Preservation of Plant Material 1.Killing Agents Formalin: A solution of formaldehyde that preserves cellular structure and morphology. Often used for herbaceous plants and flowers that require immediate preservation. Safety Considerations: Use gloves and a mask when handling formalin to avoid inhalation or skin contact, as it can be toxic and irritating. 2.Fixing Agents FAA (Formalin-Acetic-Alcohol): A commonly used fixing agent that combines formalin, acetic acid, and ethanol. The acetic acid helps to preserve nucleic acids, while alcohol prevents decomposition. Preparation of FAA: Mix 10% formalin, 5% acetic acid, and 50% ethanol in a glass container; ensure proper ventilation during mixing.  Killing and Fixation These are two essential requisites for the processing of cells and tissues. Both are usually performed by a single fluid called Fixative. Fixatives are usually a mix a several different chemicals reagents. This step is done to preserve the natural structures of the fresh specimen for as long as possible. If the fresh specimen is left untreated for long, it may undergo dehydration, and the cells and tissues may loose its natural shape. Therefore, after collecting the fresh material, killing and fixation should be done to the specimen as fast as possible. ⚫ Killing: The term killing means a sudden and permanent termination of all life processes. It does not apply just to the entire organism, but every single cell in the body of the organism. Thus any reagent used for killing should reach every single cell in the organism to do its work completely and effectively. ⚫ Fixation: It is the preservation , of all cellular and structural elements of the specimen, as nearly the natural living condition as possible. Fixation preserves all structural and cellular elements in as near their original state as possible. A good fixative is one which changes the cell chemistry the least and preserves the cell structure the best. Fixation also makes structures which are usually invisible during living condition, far more distinct. Goals of Killing and Fixation: i. To preserve cell structures and contents in as natural a form as possible. ii.Modify the refractive index of some of the cellular elements so that they are made better distinguishable under a microscope. iii.To make materials more resistant and hard to reactions during further treatment in processing. iv.To prepare the material to improve upon effects of certain stains. Reagents commonly Used for Killing : a)Ethyl Alcohol: Miscible with water. A reducing Agent. Dissolves fats and Phospholipids. Very rapid penetrability. Shrinks tissues and hardens very much. Precipitates proteins and nucleic acids. Makes tissues difficult to stain. b)Formalin: It is the 40% aqueous solution of Formaldehyde. Miscible with water. A reducing agent. Slow permeability. Causes no shrinkage. Very great hardening effect. Fumes are extremely irritating. c)Acetic Acid: Miscible with water. Very rapid penetrating agent. No hardening effect. Makes tissues soft and incapable of hardening. Does not fix cytoplasm and fats. Precipitates nucleoproteins. d)Mercuric Chloride: A rapid fixer and a powerful precipitant of proteins and nucleic acids. But it tends to shrink tissues. Transparent tissues are rendered opaque as soon as fixed. Thorough washing is essential. e)Propionic Acid: Miscible with water. Modifies hardening and shrinkage effects of alcohol and formalin. Preserves nuclear details. Good Penetration. Tends to swell and soften tissues. Reduces staining of cytoplasm. f) Chromic acid(Crystals): Miscible with water. An oxidiser. Should not be used with alcohol and formalin. Slow penetration. Causes shrinkage of cytoplasm and nucleus. Hardens tissues rapidly. Precipitates proteins insolubly. Each reagent used for killing and fixation has both its advantages and disadvantages. Some reagents used for killing purposes penetrate rapidly, and other others penetrate slowly. The general principle involved in combining killing and fixing fluid is to secure a balance between all the properties of reagents involved. A substance, which can shrink cytoplasm, should be combined with one that teds to swell cytoplasm in order to counteract the shrinking effect of the other. In other words, one reagent can counterbalance the disadvantages occurring in other reagent, if the the disadvantages are of directly opposite nature. Two reagents which have identical disadvantages should never be combined. Substances, which are easily oxidised , should not, as a rule, be combined with reagents that are powerful reducing agents.  Important Fixatives or Fixing Agent : FAA ⚫ Formalin-Acetic Acid-Alcohol (FAA): Recommended for algae and materials for Histological studies. Has good hardening action. Specimens could be kept in FAA indefinitely without damage. A lower percentage of alcohol may be used while fixing delicate objects. For hard woody materials, decrease acid and increase formalin. Minimum time required for fixation is 18 hours. Wash in alcohol after fixation and store in the same. Ethyl Alcohol 95% 50ml Glacial Acetic Acid 5ml Formalin 10ml Water 35ml  Preservation The purpose of Preservation is to protect and maintain biological specimens for study, education, and exhibition. Types of Preservation: A. Wet Preservation: Involves storing specimens in liquid mediums. B. Dry Preservation: Involves air-drying specimens for long- term storage.  A) Wet Preservation: Museum Jar Preservation It is a method of preserving biological specimens, such as marine life, fungi, and small animals, in a liquid medium. Common Liquids Used: Alcohol: Ethanol (70-90%) is most common; used for preserving soft-bodied organisms. Formaldehyde: Often used in a buffered solution for specimens needing long-term storage. Glycerin: Sometimes added to maintain flexibility in specimens. The specimen could be preserved after fixing them in Fixatives like FAA. Clear glass is preferred for visibility; wide-mouth jars facilitate specimen insertion. Sealing: Lids must be airtight to prevent evaporation and contamination. Advantages. Maintains original color, shape, and structural integrity of specimens. Suitable for soft-bodied organisms that would otherwise decay quickly. Disadvantages. Risk of leakage or breakage of containers.Potential for chemical hazards (e.g., formaldehyde). Requires careful management of liquid levels and environmental conditions. Best Practices. Regularly check liquid levels and replace evaporated or degraded preservative. Label jars clearly with species, collection date, and preservation method. Store in a controlled environment to minimize temperature fluctuations.  B) Dry preservation: Herbarium. It is a method of preserving plant specimens by drying them and mounting them on sheets. Steps involved: Collection: Specimens should be collected at the right stage of growth and in good condition. Pressing: Use plant presses to flatten specimens quickly to reduce moisture retention. Drying: Change the filter papers frequently to remove the moiture from the pressed material; silica gel can be used for quick moisture removal. Mounting: The dried pressed specimens are mounted onto herbarium sheets using gums or sewed onto the sheets using threads. Sheets are typically acid-free paper or cardboard Labeling: Each specimen should include detailed labels with scientific name, location, date of collection, habitat, and collector's information. Advantages: Lightweight and space-efficient. Allows for long-term study and reference. Less risk of decay compared to wet specimens. Disadvantages: Limited to certain types of specimens (primarily vascular plants). Loss of color and structural details can occur. More susceptible to pests like insects and mold if not properly stored. Best Practices: Store in a cool, dry, and dark environment to prevent degradation. Regular inspections for pests or moisture damage. Maintain accurate and organized records for easy retrieval. Aspect Wet Preservation Dry Preservation Soft-bodied organisms, Vascular plants, Suitable Specimens marine life herbaceous specimens Liquids (e.g., alcohol, Air and adhesives (e.g., Preservation Medium formaldehyde) glue) Airtight containers, liquid Herbarium sheets, pest Storage Requirements management management Potential for chemical Generally stable if well- Longevity degradation maintained Visual access can be Easy to browse and Accessibility limited identify  Herbarium Techniques ⚫ Herbarium forms a permanent record or document of specimens for further study. So, herbarium specimens must be carefully selected and collected, correctly identified and scientifically preserved. The major steps in the preparation of a herbarium specimen are the following: ⚫ i) Collection of specimens: The specimens for herbarium are to be collected from different localities and habitats. A selected specimen should have all plant parts, including the root system for herbaceous plants. The necessary tools for plant collection include collection pick (an equipment for digging up roots and underground parts), strong knife, pruning shears (an equipment for cutting specimens), plant press, hand lens, field book, tags, blotting papers, etc. ⚫ The plants collected may be pressed on the spot, or can be stored temporarily in a vasculum (a metal box used to collect plant specimens without damage), or in ruck sacks and pressed after reaching the camp site. ⚫ Now-a-days, polythene bags are used for plant collection instead of vasculum. ⚫ Plants of the flowering and fruiting stages are usually collected. Soon after collection, they must be tagged and the details regarding the locality and the field characters must be recorded in the field book. ⚫ ii) Poisoning of specimens: In order to avoid any chance of infection, the specimens must be poisoned immediately after collection. For poisoning the specimens, 1% mercuric chloride, Lauryl pentachlorophenate (LPCP), 4% formalin, etc. are recommended. ⚫ iii) Pressing and drying of specimens: The poisoned specimens are later on pressed in between sheets of blotting paper or news paper. During this, the plants are arranged in such a way that there should be one specimen on each sheet, without overlapping of plant parts. The blotting papers with plant specimens are then kept tightly pressed in the press for 24 to 48 hours. The press is then opened, papers are changed and the plants are properly arranged on new sheets. Again, the press is kept tightly closed for 1 or 2 days. Then, the press is opened, the papers are changed and the process is repeated till the specimens are properly dried. ⚫ iv) Mounting and labelling of specimens: After drying, the specimens are mounted on sheets of standard size(161/2 × 111⁄2 inch or 41.9 x 29.2 cm), called herbarium sheets. In order to fasten the specimens to the sheets, paste or glue or adhesive or gummed strips can be used. Stiff parts of woody plants are usually stitched to the sheet. ⚫ The mounted specimens should be properly labelled. A label is pasted on the lower right-hand corner of the sheet. Herbarium labels constitute an important part of finished specimens. They furnish necessary field data, which are not apparent from the material. The label should contain the following information: ⚫ Collection number, date of collection, scientific name of the plant, local name of the plant, if available, family, habit, locality, altitude, notes, collector's name, etc. A generalised format of labelling is given below: ⚫ Flora of................... ⚫ Habit:.................... ⚫ Accession number of plant:............. ⚫ Date of collection;................ ⚫ Family:.................. ⚫ Ecological notes:...................... ⚫ Genus & Species:................................................................... ⚫ Locality and altitude:.............. ⚫ Name of collector:................ Free-hand sectioning: Transverse section (TS), Longitudinal section (LS) Free-Hand Sectioning Free-hand sectioning refers to manually cutting thin slices of a specimen without the use of a microtome or other precision instrument. The process is often done using a sharp blade, such as a razor or scalpel. This technique requires practice to ensure the sections are thin enough to be viewed under a microscope, but not too thin to be damaged.  Transverse Section (TS) A Transverse Section is a cut made perpendicular (at a right angle) to the long axis of a structure or organ. Think of it like slicing a cucumber across its width to see the internal rings. Plane of Cut: Cross-sectional or horizontal cut. Purpose: Used to observe the internal circular structure, arrangement of tissues, and the organization of different cell types. Example: A transverse section of a stem will show vascular bundles (xylem, phloem), cortex, pith, and epidermis in a circular arrangement. Applications of TS: Studying the arrangement of vascular bundles in stems or roots. Observing cellular organization in plants. Identifying tissues such as xylem, phloem.  Longitudinal Section (LS) A Longitudinal Section is a cut made along the length or vertical axis of an organ or structure. Imagine slicing a carrot lengthwise to see the inner core running from top to bottom. Plane of Cut: Vertical or lengthwise cut. Purpose: Used to study the internal structure from top to bottom, showing how tissues and cells are arranged along the length. Examples: A longitudinal section of a stem or root will show vascular tissues running along the length of the organ. Applications of LS: Observing the structure and alignment of tissues such as xylem vessels. Studying the growth regions in roots or shoots (e.g., apical meristems). Examining the longitudinal arrangement of cells or tissues. Key Differences Between TS and LS: Feature Transverse Section (TS) Longitudinal Section (LS) Perpendicular to the long Direction of Cut Parallel to the long axis axis Shape of Section Circular or oval Long and narrow Circular arrangement of Lengthwise arrangement Structures Observed tissues of tissues Studying internal tissue Studying vertical Best For arrangement alignment of structures  Common Challenges in Free-Hand Sectioning: Thickness of Sections: Sections that are too thick may block light and obscure details. Thin, even sections are crucial for proper observation. Damage to Specimen: Applying too much pressure or using a blunt blade can crush delicate tissues, making it hard to observe cellular details. Proper Staining: In some cases, the section may need to be stained to differentiate between different types of cells or tissues. Tips for Success in Free-Hand Sectioning: Use fresh specimens for easier sectioning. Keep your blade or razor sharp for clean cuts. Practice is key: Free-hand sectioning improves with experience. Always handle the sections carefully to avoid tearing or folding. Importance in Biological Studies: Free-hand sectioning is an essential skill for studying plant and animal anatomy at the microscopic level. It is cost-effective, as it does not require advanced equipment like microtomes. Enables students to quickly prepare and observe sections in a laboratory setting. Field Study and Plant Collection – Extra Notes ⚫ The main objective of collecting plants in the field and preserving them in the herbarium, are to preserve the specimens for all times and notes on the herbarium that will yield the maximum information about the plant concerned. ⚫ Rules for Plant collection: i. Almost all natural environments are suitable for searching of plants for the herbarium. So, places, which could appear sterile and dry, must not be overlooked. Only native and naturalized plants may be collected. One may rely on the richness of the flowers and plants, which grow on grasslands and prairies, but one may also find an interesting specimen during trips to the mountains, swamps, coast, woods or wherever the climate and the temperature are not too extreme for plant survival. However, collecting on private property, or National parks, or private farms should be avoided. In such cases, it does require prior permission from the owner or local administrative office. Further, some species of plants are protected by the law. So it is not wise to pick them up from the environment. It is the responsibility of the plant collector to get a list of the protected species and one should get permission to collect these protected species too. One can also substitute colour photographs for samples of the protected species. ii.One should avoid collecting all of something and the last of anything i.e. in general, a good rule of thumb is to collect only a small set of samples from a large population. It is wise never to pick up an excessive amount of specimens of the same plant, especially if one does not see many of them around. It is advised to harvest the minimum number of plants one needs for classification and collection. In case of annual plants, a similar guideline is usually well to follow, but for trees and shrubs, it is best to selectively trim a few pieces from different individuals so as not to damage, in any way, the long-term survival of any individual. iii.The most important part of every collected specimen is the flower. So the best seasons for picking up plants are spring and summer. However, certain species show their flowers in autumn or even winter. At the same time a few plants have a very short blooming time, which one should keep an eye on to catch the flowering time. Some plants have short-lived flowers, which are deliquescent and will break up in pieces, unless picked early in the day and immediately pressed in the folder. iv. The plants which one is interested in should be fresh and not wet (apart from plants which live in aquatic environments). The most convenient specimens to pick up are those, which seem quite dry, and lacking any trace of surface moisture. For this reason, it is better not to look for plants during rainy days, or early in the morning. Also, the hottest hours during summer days should be avoided, as plants will not show their freshest appearance. v.While collecting annuals, one should attempt to gather roots, flowers and fruits. Some species may also require fruits or mature seeds for identification, as for example, Brassicaceae require fruits for identification. One may bring along some small bags or envelopes to carry the seeds and other small separate components. As for herbaceous perennials it is best to avoid taking the root system. A small piece of the root, or a single bulb, may be necessary for proper identification in some groups (Poaceae, Liliaceae). When collecting members of Poaceae, Cyperaceae and Juncaceae, for example, it is advised to make observations regarding rhizome, the presence of which can be critical in the identification of the plant. Many other groups may have stolons or rhizome, and while a piece of the stolon can easily be gathered, the presence of a rhizome in some other groups might better be just simply noted rather than collected. All dirt should be removed from the plant after collection as well as all the insects, spider-webs and foreign bodies attached to the specimens. vi.When collecting trees and shrubs, reproductive structures are vital. Cones, catkins and similar structures need not necessarily be new. However, every effort should be made to collect fresh flowering and fruiting parts if possible. For proper identification in some groups (for example, Fagaceae), leaves and even mature fruits may be necessary. vii.A herbarium with scientific merit usually relies on the plants, which grow naturally in a specific geographical area. So it is important to distinguish between the wild species from those, which have grown after human intervention, as for example some garden flowers or most cultivated plants. Occasionally it has been found that a plant species previously introduced by man may continue to spontaneously grow outside its original artificial environment. In such a case, the plant can actually become a new element of the spontaneous flora and can consequently become part of a herbarium. viii.When one picks up plants from the natural environment, one should keep in mind that the plants have to be fixed up on returning home and they will have to be classified too, in order to achieve a scientific value for the herbarium. These operations require a substantial amount of time. Hence, one should try not to collect so many specimens that one cannot find the time to settle and study all of them. ix.During classification, one may have to section and basically tear apart some flowers. Hence, it is suggested not to pick up just one or two flowers of each species while looking for plants, otherwise one may be forced either to sacrifice every flower for the classification job or to simply give up the classification. x.Collect entire, vigorously growing typical specimens. xi.Select such individuals that represent almost all phases of the natural population. xii.Avoid collecting insect-damaged specimens. xiii.Collect underground parts (e.g. roots, bulbs, rhizomes, tuber, etc.) of herbaceous perennials. xiv.Collect those specimens of flowering plants that contain flowers, fruits and seeds, because keys are prepared mainly on the basis of these characters. xv.Specimens larger than the size of a single sheet, should be divided and pressed on a series of sheets. xvi.Collect plants with the leaves intact as different kinds of foliage prove helpful in identification. xvii.Collect the bark and wood samples of the woody plants. xviii.Avoid collecting rare or uncommon plants. Never collect the only plant of a species at a locality. ⚫ Tools and equipments needed for Plant collection: i. Field Press: It is made up of a pair of hardwood, metal or strong plywood frames of 12 by 18 inch. ii. Driers or Blotters: These are the sheets of heavy blotting papers or of other moisture absorbing material of 11 by 16 inch dimensions. Old newspapers are also used as driers. iii. Straps or Ropes Rope, sash cord, or a pair of strong web straps of about 4-5 feet length are used to tighten the press. iv. Corrugate Ventilators: Sheets of corrugated cardboard of 12 by 18 inch are used in between the driers (= blotters) as ventilators when plants are dried by artificial heat. They provide space for the passage of air through the press to remove moisture. v. Field Notebook: An indispensable item of a plant collector is a permanently bound, small field notebook with ruled pages. It is used to record the full data (such as date, place, locality, habitat, elevation, local name, collector number,' etc.) of the collected plant. The data is recorded in the field notebook in the field itself. vi.Digging and Clipping Tools: Trowel, diggers, hammer, pruning shears, garden clippers, geological pick, and heavy sheath knife, etc. are all used for digging or clipping the plants. vii.String Tags: These are made of waterproof material, and are used for labelling plants that are not immediately pressed. viii. Vasculum: Vasculum is a container made of tin or aluminium sheet and contains a hinged light lid. Plants, which are not pressed in the field, are placed in a vasculum to preserve their freshness for sometime. ix. Collecting Bags: These are plastic bags, used as containers for fresh specimens. x. Collection Bottles: These are glass or plastic bottles with leakproof screw caps. These are used for collecting small-sized material, to be preserved in liquid preservatives. xi. Liquid Preservative: Formalin-aceticacid-alcohol (FAA) is the most common liquid preservative used for anatomy materials. 6:3:1 mixture of chloroform, 95% ethyl alcohol and glacial acetic acid is often used for cytology materials. xii. Hand Lens: A 5x or 10x lens is used in the field for observation and identification. xiii. Waxed Paper: Sheets of waxed paper are used for pressing viscid or weak-looking plants. xiv.Cardboard Storage Boxes These are the boxes or containers used to store dry materials. xv.Maps or Gps: These are useful in the field for determining the localities for particular species. xvi.Colour Charts These are used for determining the actual colour of the flower parts in the field itself. xvii.Camera and Film These are used for taking photographs of important plants in the field. xviii.Other Field Equipment and Supplies Altimeter, compass, pocket knife, soft lead pencils, insect repellant, portable plant drier, and seed envelopes are some other useful equipment for plant collection.