The Scientific Revolution PDF

The Scientific Revolution SOENCE AND TECHNOLOGY In Such questioning led to the geocentric heliocentric theory the mid-1500s, scientists began development of the scientific theory Galileo Galilei to question ac...

The Scientific Revolution SOENCE AND TECHNOLOGY In Such questioning led to the geocentric heliocentric theory the mid-1500s, scientists began development of the scientific theory Galileo Galilei to question accepted beliefs and method still in use today. Scientific scientific method make new theories based on Revolution Isaac Newton experimentation. r' ~ured Above SETTING THE STAGE As you recall, the period between 1300 and 1600 was ('. Copernican a time of great change in Europe. The Renaissance, a rebirth of learning and the Sc.ar System, arts, inspired a spirit of curiosity in many fields. Scholars began to question ideas 1-0.., Andreae that had been accepted for hundreds of years. Meanwhile, the religious move- CE ~r,Js, ment known as the Reformat ion prompted followers to challenge accepted ways h'!ilmomo of thinking about God and salvation. While the Reformation was taking place, !.1aaocosruca, another revolution in European thought had begun, one that would permanen tly 1661 change how people viewed the physical world. /RJ Signing cf 1he U.5 The Roots of Mode rn Science Before 1500, scholars generally decided what was true or false by referring to an ancient Greek or Roman author or to the Bible. Few European scholars UimlM!ifiH~,·ii··i::· NO ES challenged the scientific ideas of the ancient thinkers or the church by carefully Use the graphic organizer online to take notes observing nature for themselves. on the events and The Medieval View During the Middle Ages, most scholars believed that the circumstances that led to earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe. Accordin g the Scientific Revolution. to that belief, the moon, the sun, and the planets all moved in perfectly circular paths around the earth. Common sense seemed to support this view. After all, the sun appeared to be moving around the earth as it rose in the morning and set in the evening. This earth-centered view of the universe was called the 1eocentric theory. The idea came from Aristotle, the Greek philosopher of the fourth century s.c. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy (TOL a mee) expanded the theory in the second century A.O. In addition, Christianity taught that God had deliberately placed the earth at the center of the universe. Earth was thus a special place on which the great drama of life unfolded. A New Way of Thinking Beginning in the mid- l 500s, a few scholars published works that challenged the ideas of the ancient thinkers and the church. As these scholars replaced old assumptions with new theories, they launched a change in European thought that historians call the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution was a new way of thinking about the natural world. That way was based upon careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs. Enlightenment and Revolution 189  led to the Scientific Rev0 1. A comb inati on of discoveries and circu msta nces · tra Ution d and h e lpe sprea d tts · · impa ct Dun ng the Renaissance, European explorers ve1ed. were inhabited by peoples and ani.. to Africa, A s1a, and the Ame ricas. Such lands · l veries open ed Europeans to the m al s_ ~~vt ous y unkn own in Europe. Thes e disco. The invention of the printin poss1b1bty that there were new truth s to be found engin g idea s-bo th old and new_ : press durin g this perio d helpe d sprea d chall more wide ly amon g Euro pe's thinkers. great deal of scientific research The age of Euro pean exploration also fueled a gators needed better instrumen~ especially in astro nomy and mathematics. Navi determine their location in the open and geog raphi c measurements, for example, to the world around them, they made sea. As scientists bega n to look more closely at fs. They found they had reached observations that did not matc h the ancie nt belie they still needed to know more. the limit of the classical world's knowledge. Yet, A Revolutionary Mo del of the Universe ing came in the field of astronomy. An early challenge to accepted scientific think to question the geocentric theory. It starte d when a small grou p of scholars began The Heliocentric Theory Altho ugh back ed by autho rity and comm on sense, the move ment s of the sun, moon , and geocentric theor y did not accurately explain the and astro nome r named Nicolaus plane ts. This prob lem troubled a Polish cleric Cope rnicu s (koh PUR nuh kuh s). In the early 1500s, Copernicus became inter ested in an old Gree k idea that the sun stood at the cente r of the universe. Afte r study ing plane tary movements for more than 25 years, Copernicus reaso ned that indeed, the stars, the earth , and the other planets revolved arou nd the sun. Cope rnicus's heliocentric, or sun- centered, ~ still did not com- plete ly expl ain why the planets (Earth : the stars orbit ed the way they did. He also :venu~ knew that most scholars and clergy ry ' Jupiter Saturn :Mars S~n :Mercu would rejec t his theor y becau se it contr adict ed their relig ious views. not publi sh his findings until 1543, This model Fearing ridicule or persecution, Cope rnicu s did shows how , On the Revolutions ofthe Copernicus saw the the last year of his life. He received a copy of his book plane ts revolving Heavenly Bodies, on his deathbed. little stir at first. Over the next aroun d the sun. While revolutionary, Cope rnicu s's book caus ed foun datio ns he had laid. A Danish centu ry and a half, other scien tists built on the ully recor ded the movements of astro nome r, Tycho Brahe (TEE koh brah ), caref A. AJJSll~ ,v · tains of accu rate data based on supportr, :, the plane ts for many years. Brah e prod uced moun orv f!l7 llia nt, and con tro ver sia l fig ure , Rousseau strongl strange, bri... -~ -~ - ,>Analyzing Primary Sources Laws Ensure Security Laws Protect Freedom While laws work to protect citizens from abusive rulers, and Rousseau believed firmly that fair also guard against anarchy Both Montesquieu mo bs- s~ould Montesquieu argues that they or unrestrain ed and just laws-not monarchs s esta blished and mob rule. govern society. Here, Roussea u argues that law hallmark of a free society. by and for the people are the PR IM AR Y SO UR CE PRI MARY SO UR CE the people seem It is true that in democracies e "Republic" to every itical liberty I... therefore give the nam to act as they please; but pol by laws, no matter what ted freedom. state that is governed does not consist in an unlimi may be: for ally present to the form of its administration.. _We must have continu public intere5t nce be_ twe en_ only in such a case does the our minds the diff ere erty is a. ubl ica rank ~s a and liberty. Lib govern, and the res rep independence law s per mit, reality.... Laws are , pro per ly s~e ~ki ng, right of doing whatever the tJon. The do wh at the y {the only the con ditions of civil ass oaa and if a citizen could people, being subject to the law s, oug ht_ to 1 sJ forbid he would be no longer his fellow- be their author: the conditi ons of the soo ety aw possesse d of.,, because all libertv se who come e pow er. ought to be regulated... by tho citizens would have the sam it of low s , The Spir together to form it BARON DE MONTESQUIEU , The Sod a/ Contrad JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU s, according the authors of sodety's law DOCUMENT-BAes SED QUESTIO~Sens be 1. Analyzin1 Issu Why sho uld citiz 1,0 ws leads to a ing u? tesquieu believe that disobey to Roussea y doe s Mon 2. M41kins Inferences Wh loss of liberty? tion 197 Enlightenment and Revolu. CoopERATIVE LEARNING ~"aly · g Enlightenment Philosophers to research b rs should work together r. Each Cla lin em _~ ,,. =ihout their philos Ss 'ti.,. _ ophe I -  Enlight enment thinkers on many matters. Most philoso phes believed that reaso th:, science , and art would improve life for all people. Rousseau, however, argued and every~ civilization corrupt ed people' s natural goodne ss. "Man is born free, where he is in chains," he wrote. Rousse au believed that the only good government was one that was freely fonned by the people and guided by the "genera l ':ill" of society -a_direct democra cy. favor Under such a governm ent, people agree to give up some of their freedom in l philoso phy in a book of the commo n good. In 1762, he explain ed his politica called The Social Contract. For Rousse au's view of the social contrac t differed greatly from that of Hobbes. Hobbes, the social contrac t was an agreem ent betwee n a society and its govern- ment. For Rousseau, it was an agreem ent among free individuals to create a society and a government. Like Locke, Rousseau argued that legitim ate govern ment came from the consent than of the governed. However, Rousseau believe d in a much broader democracy nobil- Locke had promoted. He argued that all people were equal and that titles of of the ity should be abolished. Rousseau's ideas inspired many of the leaders French Revolution who overthrew the monarc hy in 1789. Beccaria Promotes Criminal Justice An Italian philoso phe named Cesare He Bonesana Beccaria (BAYK uh REE ah) turned his thought s to the justice system. believed that laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes. Beccaria s regularly criticized common abuses of justice. They include d torturing of witnesse or and suspects, irregular proceedings in trials, and punishm ents that were arbitrary trial, and cruel. He argued that a person accused of a crime should receive a speedy should that torture should never be used. Moreover, he said, the degree of punishment ent be based on the seriousness of the crime. He also believed that capital punishm should be abolished. Beccaria based his ideas about justice on the princip le that governments should ed seek the greatest good for the greates t number of people. His ideas influenc criminal law reformers in Europe and North Americ a. Major Ideas of the Enlightenment Idea Impact Natural rights-life, liberty, property Locke Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence Separation of powers Montesquieu France, United States, and Latin American nations use separation of powers in new constitutions Freedom of thought and Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of expression the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce or eliminate censorship Abolishment of torture Beccaria ~uaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights; torture outlawed or reduced m nations of Europe and the Americas Religious freedom Voltaire Guar~nteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Righ!5 of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce persecution Women's equality Wollstonecraft Women's rights groups form in Europe and North America SKILLBUILDER; Interpre ting Charts r ,. h What important documents. reflect the influence of "n,19. 1. Analyzing Issues... tenment ideas? 2. Forming Opinions Which are the two most importan t Enlightenment · 10 eos7 5 upport your answer with reasons. 198 Chapter 6  I I I lightenment Women and the Emanny assumptions about gov- I en ge d H is to ry Makers I I The ph ilo so ph es _ch all a traditional vie w I Bu t the y oft en too k ern me nt an d so cie ty. ed ma ny pro - I u, for ex am ple , develop toward wo me n. Ro us sea he believed tha t a ssi ve ide as ab ou t ed uc ati on. Ho we ve r, gre to be a helpful ma inl y tea ch he r ho w girl 's ed uc ati on sh ou ld lde d women for r ma le so cia l cri tic s sco wife an d mo the r. Ot he ge d idleness g no ve ls be ca us e the y tho ug ht it en co ura readin ue d for mo re so me ma le wr ite rs arg and wi ck ed ne ss. Still, lit y in marriage. an d for wo me n's eq ua education for wo me n of women. en wr ite rs als o tri ed to im pro ve the status Wom shed A Serious ite r Mary As tel l publi In 1694, the En gli sh wr lack of ed u- osa l to the La die s. He r bo ok ad dre sse d the Pr op she used op po rtu nit ies for wo me n. In lat er writings, cational t to criticize the en ts ab ou t go ve rnm en Enlightenment arg um me n in marriage. Ma ry Wollston ecraf t eq ua l rel ati on sh ip be tw ee n me n an d wo un cessary in a state, 17 59 -17 97 e so ve rei gn ty be no t ne She wrote , "I f ab so lut me n are born free, A strong advocate of edu cation for in a family?... If all self received how co me s it to be so women, Wollstonecraft her n are bo rn sla ve s?" Sh e an d her how is it tha t all wo me little formal school ing. these themes. er wo me n pic ke d up two sisters tau gh t the ms elv es by During the 17 00 s, oth tonecraft, who asi ve was Mary Wolls boo ks at hom e. Wi th her studying Am on g the mo st pe rsu the Rights of sisters, she briefly ran a sch ool. These she d an ess ay ca lle d A Vindication of mu ch of her publi with Rousseau experiences sha ped ess ay, sh e dis ag ree d Woman in 1792. In the men's. Rather, thoughts abo ut educat ion. sh ou ld be sec on da ry to eve ntu ally took a that wo me ns ed uc ati on Wo llstone cra ft ation to become er. There, arg ue d tha t wo me n, like me n, ne ed educ job with_a London pub lish she n to enter ica ls of the ne cra ft als o urged wome lea din g rad Dmring she me t many vir tuo us an d useful. W oll sto cs. S> the m wa s her fut ure c..dl!Sions an d politi day. One of le- do mi na ted fie lds of me dic ine llia m Go dwin. l) Why do you the ma to the Enlight- husband, the writer Wi of W om en ma de im po rta nt co ntr ibu tio ns Wollstonecraft die d at age 38, aft er !link the issue rop ea n cities , t!locationwas nt in oth er wa ys. In Pa ris an d oth er Eu giving birth to the ir dau ght er, Ma ry. en me en t !de as thr ou gh d na me wa s important to both d sp rea d En lig hte nm This child, wh ose marrie wealthy wo me n he lpe ab ou t , we nt on Aste!!and wh ich yo u will rea d Mary Wollstonecraft She lley soc ial ga the rin gs ca lle d sal on s, c nov el Fra nkenstein. Wollstonecraft?.. to write the classi lat er in thi s ch ap ter. e an ed uc ati on ID s.c om C. Answer en ou gh to rec eiv ',;" hm hs oc ial stu die ~..a:ic~ was On e wo ma n fo rtu na te t! a~ )- Du du Ch ate let (shah RESEARCH WEB LINKS Go Online for rhled 'J women; 1t the sc ien ce s wa s Em ili e ma t1c 1~ nd_a one craft. cra t tra ine d as a ma the Ma ry Wo llst CO\.ldhepwomen wa s an ari sto more on i,ir oie ~mselves Ch ate let on 's wo rk. from · LaFra nn 1Dto.. t B tra ns lat ing Ne wt.. nce. ~ v.~ key to hys1c1s. y m sci en ce ID p ere st '1aosmg the same French, sh e he lpe d sti mu lat e mt ngtt1as me, f th Enlighte nmentwriters challenged long-held ideas L. nm en t egacy O fewedecades, En hg. e. as the di'vine right of monarchs,hetheld ht Ov er a sp.an of a · d uc h pn.nc 1p1es f un eq ua l social classes. Th ey ex am me s ab ou t so cie ty. Th ey d d the ex istdentice od them in ne ed of reform.. sta te, an d and popular- umon of ch ur ch an up to the lig ht of rea so n an 1 ° dun f 'd as Th ey forme o e. revo- - d in the wo r d c. they were not active I these be lie fs ·n1 1!Ve h es ma 1 Y co ura ge rei orm , Fre American and h.nknc Th e ph ilo so ph. h th y en.. d the tho ug e prre nment t 1 · ized ne w the on es. Al. th eo ne. s ev en tua 11y ms. th 1S00s. Enlighte. i · · the rr ve me nts hID ed ha pe Western c1v1 1zation. lutionaries. Ho we ve r, Iua.onary mo revolutions an d oth er rev o effects tha t.e Ifpe. s gress Pioneers such as erm. ing pro du ce d thr ee oth er lon g-t fti ct was a beun1 lle m pr othe my. steries of nature m ki Jd fir st e e the ke y for oc ng h of scientific know e ge Belief in Progress Th e. d d, the gro wt volution I 9 9 d d1scovere Enlightenment an d Re Galileo an d Ne wt on ha th us op en e With the do or the 1500s an d 16 00 s. TED AND TALENTED STUDENTS STRUCTION: GIF / DI FFE RENTIATING IN...,.,..~ft's Id ea s all er ou ps have finished , di  in chemis seemed to quicken in the 1700s. Scientists made key new discoveries physics, biology, and mechanics. The successes of the Scient ific Revolution gtry, ave. human reason could solve social proble ms. Philoso phes peop Ie the confidence that for greater social and reformers urged an end to the practice of slavery and argued equality, as well as a more democratic style of government. A More Secular Outlook A second outcome was the rise of a more secular, 0 r question Openly non-religious, outlook. During the Enlightenment, people began to the Scientific their religious beliefs and the teachings of the church. Before workings of God. Revolution, people accepted the mysteries of the universe as the ned mathemat- One by one, scientists discovered that these mysteries could be explai t to reveal God's ically. Newton himself was a deeply religious man, and he sough people to change the majesty through his work. However, his findings often caused way they thought about God. and practices Meanwhile, Voltaire and other critics attacked some of the beliefs tition and fear of organized Christianity. They wanted to rid religious faith of supers and promote tolerance of all religions. produced a third Importance of the Individual Faith in science and in progress from the church outcome, the rise of individualism. As people began to turn away and royalty for guidance, they looked to themselves instead. in order to The philosophes encouraged people to use their own ability to reason of the individ- judge what was right or wrong. They also emphasized the importance to promote their ual in society. Government, they argued, was formed by individuals sis on the individual to welfare. The British thinker Adam Smith extended the empha own self-interest economic thinking. He believed that individuals acting in their in Chapter 9. created economic progress. Smith 's theory is discussed in detail st minds of During the Enlightenment, reason took center stage. The greate to discus s their ideas. Europe followed each other's work with interest and often met you will learn Some of the kings and queens of Europe were also very interested. As to create progress in Section 3, they sought to apply some of the philosophes ' ideas in their countries. ing its significance. TERMS Ir NAMES I. For each term or name, write a sentence explain Voltaire Montesquieu Rousseau Mary Wollstonecraft Enlightenment social contract John Locke philosophe I USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 1 3. What are the natural rights with ciitO 6. SYNTHESIZING Explain how the following statemefll / 2. Which impact of the Enlight- enment do you consider most which people are bom, reflects Enlightenment ideas: -power should be a bet" I important? Why? E,,/ifl' t-« it/ iw,,- according to John Locke? 4. Who were the philosophes and to power." 7. ANALYIING ISSUES Why might some women fl.wt v;-,,, what did they advocate? critical of the Enlightenment?.~ 1. rw, °"'"~ 5. What was the legacy of the 8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Do you think the ~h~ ~ ' A. Enlightenment? were optimistic about the future of humanktn · re~ &. 1/. r,,. 'Plti/n,p ltu I 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHo@ c~ An.ut ,R_,, views of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseauthon_8~eas 1 #1 A. aph about ho~ etr &. Then write one paragr their understanding of human behavior. I 1/ CONNECT TO TODAY PRESENTING AN ORAL REPORT I Identify someone considered a modern-day social acritic. Explore the perso , b r fs d findings to the dass in brief oral report. n s e ,e an methods and present your 200 Chapter 6