Bomhold_CH2_Scan.docx

INTRODUCTION Do you know what the Iditarod race is? Or, have you ever wondered where you would find information on making cheese? Or, where you should go on your next vacation? Or, whether UFOs really do exist? Whether you go to an encyclopedia or other reference book, or you surf the Internet to f...

INTRODUCTION Do you know what the Iditarod race is? Or, have you ever wondered where you would find information on making cheese? Or, where you should go on your next vacation? Or, whether UFOs really do exist? Whether you go to an encyclopedia or other reference book, or you surf the Internet to find answers to these questions, you are doing research. Regardless of the objective, the research process consists of a systematic investigation to find information. For the college student, research is an integral part of the learning process. Students are expected to prepare themselves for living by learning how to access information and how to use it efficiently and effectively. Instructors seeking to develop their students' information skills usually rely on some type of formal research project, usually called a research paper, a formal essay requiring the student to locate and process information. This can be a daunting experience, especially in light of the tremendous changes taking place in the way information is stored and retrieved. Some of the apprehensions related to doing research can be allayed once students learn how the research process works—how to organize and analyze information needs, how to locate and evaluate information, how to synthesize what is learned with original ideas and interpretations, and finally how to write and document the paper. This chapter will introduce you to the steps involved in researching and writing a research paper. Later chapters will concentrate on developing skills for finding and evaluating information in different types of resources. WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER The research paper is a formal essay based on an accumulation of facts and ideas gathered in the research process. The research paper offers the researcher an opportunity to examine issues, locate material relevant to an issue, digest, analyze, evaluate, and present the information with conclusions and interpretations. In preparing a research paper, you will search for appropriate resources in the library or on the Internet. 23 Although research may differ by discipline, there are two basic types of research: argumentative and analytical. According to the Purdue Online Writing Lab (owl.english.purdue.edu): o The purpose of argumentative research, in which an author takes a stance (a thesis statement) on a controversial or debatable topic then cites and discusses sources that support the thesis, is to persuade. o The purpose of analytical research, in which a researcher asks questions or explores a topic in an objective manner, is to produce original research. No matter what type of paper or report is required, it is important to know what resources are available and how to use those resources appropriately and effectively. Steps in Preparing a(n Argumentative) Paper It is helpful to approach an argumentative paper assignment as a series of stages or steps Some rather obvious steps are: Selecting a topic 5. Evaluating sources Formulating a thesis 6. Taking notes Preparing an outline 7. Writing the text of the paper Finding information 8. Documenting the sources SELECTING A TOPIC Sometimes the initial step in the preparation of a research paper is the most challenging one. The selection of a topic is also the most crucial step in determining the success of the research paper. If your instructor assigns a topic, you need only determine how to proceed with the research. In most cases, however, you must choose your own topic. While this might tend to increase your apprehensions about the research paper, it also affords some exciting and rewarding possibilities. After all, research is about acquiring new knowledge and looking at information in new ways. The trick is to focus on a topic that interests you and to discover all the aspects that you want to work with. The best way to do this is to examine several possibilities systematically. Several overiding principles that should be considered in selecting a research topic are shown in Figure 2. l. Selecting a Topic Initial consideration Beware of topics that may be too 0 conforms to the instructot's assignment 0 your prior understanding of topic 0 manageability of topic o length of assignment/ project o due date of assignment/project o your interest in the topic 0 availability of information on the topic 0 recent o regional o emotional 0 complex 0 broad o narrow Figure 2.1 (C) Selecting a topic. Research It may be necessary to narrow the focus of an overly broad topic or to broaden a topic that is too narrowly defined. Topics such as civil rights in the United States, World War Il, and the pros and cons of abortion are much too broad to be covered in a short paper. The topic, "The Incidence of Divorce in My Home Town," is probably too narrow and too regional. It is best to focus first on a broader concept of a topic, then to narrow it to a manageable level. Often a preliminary search in one or more of the sources listed in Figure 2.2 will help you narrow the topic and at the same time help you determine if there is sufficient information available. Sources for Preliminary Search o o o o 0 the Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH)—for narrow subject headings under a broad topic general encyclopedias—for overview of a topic the library catalog—to see what books and other background material are available on the topic periodicals—magazines, journal and newspaper articles for ideas on limiting a topic the Internet—for varying opinions on a topic Figure 2.2 0 Sources to consult for a preliminary search on a topic. FORMULATING A THESIS After you have become somewhat familiar with the topic selected, the second step is to deterrnine the thesis of the paper. Ask Yourself What is the purpose of the paper? What will be the focus? What stance is to be taken in the paper? The thesis statement is a concise statement of two or three sentences that provides a framework for the paper. The search strategy, or process to be used in locating information, is determined by the thesis since the information located must support the thesis. Some preliminary reading from one or two sources such as an encyclopedia article or a periodical article is probably sufficient to help formulate the thesis statement (see Figure 2.3). Formulating a Thesis Developing a Thesis o Begin with a question—not an opinion. Do not just give the purpose of the paper. Conduct preliminary research to look for points that will help you shape or form an opinion. Prepare a final statement that indicates that the thesis is supported by evidence. (A thesis statement should be brief—no more than three sentences.) Sample Topic Effect of Television Advertising on Children Initial Question Are children under the age of eight adversely affected by advertising they see on TV? After Further Research What is the purpose of TV advertising that is directed toward children? Do advertisers use tricks or unfair practices to influence children? What are some of the parental concerns relative to TV advertising directed toward children? Is there evidence to show that children and families are adversely affected by TV advertising? Should there be an outright ban of advertising on children's TV programs? Should the government regulate TV advertising on children's programs? FINAL Thesis Statement Numerous studies have found that TV advertising directed toward children can adversely affect their mental and physical health. The two most advertised products on children's TV, toys and food, place undue emphasis on consumerism and result in poor eating habits. Although there have been attempts to regutate TV advertising directed toward children, parental intervention seems to offer the best solution for countering the adverse effects of TV advertising on children. Figure 2.3 0 Formulating a thesis. PREPARING AN OUTLINE FOR ARGUMENTATIVE PAPER The third step in the research process is to prepare a working outline. The outline serves as a tool that organizes your information into a pattern you can understand and follow. In the initial stage, it is important to the search strategy, since the search should be directed to the relevant points in the outline. After you have completed your research, it serves as the skeleton for writing the final paper. It should be based on the thesis statement and should include all the facets of the topic to be investigated. To be useful the outline should divide the thesis into a number of major points; each of the points should be further divided until you can visualize the outline as a guide for research. The outline should follow a logical sequence with related points grouped together. In the process of locating information, it is probable that other aspects of the topic not included in the working outline will be discovered and that the final outline will be revised and improved. Choosing an Outline Style Your instructor may ask that you use an outline style which is informal or one that is formal, or you may choose the style that suits you best. An informal outline lists the major points by sections. Subcategories are listed below the main headings. Specific facts and phrases gathered in the course of your research are listed below the major points (see Figure 2.4). Topic: Children and Television Advertising Purpose Statistics Viewing time by children Advertising directed toward children Adverse effects Research findings Products Toys Food Regulations U.S. Other countries Parental intervention Figure 2.4 C) Example of an informal outline for argumentative research. Aformal outline follows a standard format using letters and numbers to designate separate headings. The main points in the outline are given in Roman numerals; first subheadings are assigned capital letters; the second subheadings, Arabic numbers; the third subheadings, lower-case letters. Since each heading or subheading in the outline denotes a division, there must be more than one part if it is to be logical. Thus, if there is a I, there must be a Il. The process of subdividing should follow a logical sequence with selected points grouped together in order of importance (see Figure 2.5). Formal Topic Outline for Argumentative Research Topic: The Effect of Television Advertising on Children IV advertising aimed at children Purpose Statistics Viewing time by children advertising time directed toward children ll. Adverse effects of TV advertising on children Research findings Exploitation of children Children tend to believe advertising claims they see on TV Children under eight are unable to make critical judgments about products advertised Special tactics used by advertisers to appeal to young viewers Products Toys Promote undue emphasis on consumerism Children emulate characters they see in ads Barbie Gl Joe Food Types of food advertised Health consequences Ill. Regulations U. S.-Children'sTV Act of 1990 Total ban—Denmark, Switzerland, Belgium Great Britain—lndependent Television Commission (ITC) regulations tv. Parental Intervention Figure 2.5a C) Example of a formal topic outline for argumentative research. STEPS IN PREPARING AN OBJECTIVE/ANALYTICAL RESEARCH PAPER What is objective or analytical research? This type of research has been defined as "a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information (data) in order to increase understanding of the phenomenon about which we are interested or concemed" (Leedy and Ormrod, 2004, 2). Typically, analytical research requires development of a research proposal for approval before conducting the research. There are two basic types of analytical research: Qualitative research is related to the social sciences, is grounded in social science theory, and seeks to understand phenomena (data are gathered then analyzed for recuring themes; the focus of the study may shift or evolve in this process). Examples include case studies and historical studies. Typically, descriptive statistics (percentages) are used to report results. Quantitative research is related to the hard sciences, is based on the scientific method in which hypotheses are developed and tested (once developed, the focus and hypotheses do not change; the data either support or do not support each hypothesis). Examples include surveys and experimental research. Typically, inferential statistics (probability) is used to draw inferences from a random sample to a more generalized population. STEPS IN OBJECTIVE/ANALYTICAL RESEARCH PAPER l . Begin with a general focus or topic to investigate Decide on a research methodology Search the scholarly peer-reviewed literature for previous research related to the topic and the methodology Develop general problem statement and more specific sub-problems Develop research questions or hypotheses that address each sub-problem Identify limitations and critical assumptions of the research methodology Write a research proposal, which includes background information, a statement of the research problem and sub-problems, specific research questions or hypotheses, relevant definitions, limitations and assumptions of the research, review of relevant scholarly literature, and methodology (If the research involves humans, apply for approval from the Internal Review Board (approval for human research by an IRB is required by law for institutions that accept federal funding) If the proposal is approved, conduct the research and write the research report (the proposal should state what research will be conducted and how it will be conducted; once approved, data are gathered and analyzed and the research results are reported). Five D'S of Research: A Brief Summary of the Research Process l . Define the problem Design research methodology Do the research Describe results Discuss implications Example of Outline for Objective/Analytical Research Introduction Background information (cite reference sources to introduce the reader to the topic) Importance of the study Statement of the general problem and more specific sub-problems Research questions or hypotheses (should be related to the sub-problems) Operational definitions and acronyms Limitations and delimitations of the study (what will the study exclude and include) Assumptions (assumptions embedded in the methodology; for instance, if it is a survey, it is assumed that respondents will answer the questions truthfully) Il. Review of the Literature Research builds upon previous research so review similar, previous studies that are related to the topic and methodology. The reviews should be in narrative format and include the purpose, methodology, and major results. Ill. Methodology Description: source of data, what data are collected, data collection procedures Data analysis - how data are compiled and analyzed Results Restate each research question and answer OR restate each hypothesis and state whether data support or do not support it Use tables and figures to display or illustrate results Discussion, Conclusion Summarize results and discuss possible implications Relate to previous research results, whether the results are similar or different End with recommendation for further research in the future Figure 2.5bO Example of an outline for objective/analytical research. FINDING INFORMATION Once you have settled on the type of research (argumentative or objective/analytical) and a) decided on a topic and written a thesis statement and outline for an argumentative paper or b) developed a research problem and methodology for an objective study, you are ready for what many consider to be the most interesting part of the research process: finding relevant information. In this phase you will be looking for information in a variety of sources: books, periodicals, and the Internet. Before you begin your search, it is essential that you know how to recognize sources and to analyze them with respect to the type of source and the depth and extent of coverage appropriate for your research. For argumentative research, you will search for information that supports the thesis statement. For objective/analytical research, you will search for background information on the topic for the introduction section and previous, similar research for the review of the literature section. UNDERSTANDING THE SOURCES As you plan your research and locate information, you must be able to identify whether a source is primary, secondary, or tertiary and to understand the level of scholarship—whether the treatment of the topic is popular or scholarly. These concepts are critical to determining the appropriateness of a source. Primary Sources A primary' source is a firsthand or eyewitness account of an event. It includes events in which the author is an active participant or an observer, raw data (such as census data), information gathered in surveys, and research reports. Objects such as maps, works of art, and historical artifacts are also considered primary sources. The test of whether or not something is a primary source is whether it is actually firsthand evidence without any interpretation beyond that which the observer or participant provided, whether the raw data are from a reliable source such as the Census Bureau, or whether the research is original and peer-reviewed. Secondary Sources A secondary source provides an interpretation, analysis, explanation, or a restatement of a primary source. The author of a secondary source is not present at an actual event being described; rather, he/ she reports on the events by interpreting or conveying the facts and opinions of others who were direct witnesses or participants. There is usually a lapse of time between the initial happening of an event or the original creation of a source and the time other authors begin to write or talk about the event. In fact, authors of secondary sources can also be one or more steps removed from the original event. Primary sources are frequently included in secondary sources to prove a point or to try to persuade the reader to hold a certain opinion. Tertiary Sources A tertiary source selects, compiles, and indexes primary and secondary sources. Tertiary sources point to and make it possible to find and use primary and secondary sources. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between secondary and tertiary sources. Think of them as sources which are once removed in the timeline from secondary sources. Sources which provide summaries or chronologies are considered to be tertiary sources. Some almanacs and encyclopedias fall into this category if they are merely compilations of the primary and secondary sources. Figure 2.6 lists some examples of primary, secondary and tertiary sources. Primary Sources Secondary Sources Tertiary Sources eyewitness accounts of an event (e.g., newspaper articles) biographies bibliographies research reports journal articles indexes and abstracts diaries, journals, letters, family records magazine articles online databases (not full-text) statistics (original, e.g., 2010 Census) dictionaries (long articles based on primary sources) library catalogs surveys encyclopedias (long articles, signed, documented) directories speeches textbooks literature surveys interviews monographs (non-fiction, e.g., histories) book reviews (brief) autobiographies bibliographical essays almanacs (brief facts) maps textbooks dictionaries (no analyses, brief definitions or explanations) poems, novels, short stories, films, works of art dissertations and theses (may also be primary) encyclopedias (brief survey type articles) dissertations and theses (may also be secondary) historical artifacts public documents, laws, treaties, court records Figure 2.6 0 Examples of primary, secondary, and tertiary sources. 2: INFORMATIONTIMELINES The distinction between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources can be understood by examining the timeline during which the information is created. An author presents an eyewitness account of an event in a newspaper; an architect designs a building; a researcher conducts a study of a disease; an artist creates a painting; Congress passes a law. These are the first stages of the information cycle—the primary sources. Following these firsthand accounts, secondary sources begin to appear in various media. The third phase in the information cycle occurs when information from both sources is indexed in bibliographies, online databases or other indexing services or is reviewed by various reviewing media. Figure 2.7 illustrates the timeline for an important event. Information Timeline Event: Three Mile Island Nuclear Accident On March 28, 1979, an incident described as a minor malfunction of a piece of equipment at the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, resulted in the worst nuclear accident in U.S. history. PRIMARY: Within hours news reporters converged on the site and reports providing eyewitness accounts appeared in various media (newspaper, radio, and television). EXAMPLE: Newspaper Article Meltdown most feared of accidents. (1979, March 3). The Patriot (Harrisburg, PA), p. 1. Videotapes and photographs taken at the time of the event are available from a number of places including Pennsylvania State University Library at Harrisburg, PA. Transcripts of television and radio broadcasts can be located through an Internet search. SECONDARY After a lapse of time, articles interpreting the event were published in periodicals, books, special reports and on the Internet. EXAMPLE: Book Gray, M. & Rosen, l. (1982). The warning. London: Norton, EXAMPLE: Periodical Article: Erikson, K. (1991, March). Radiation's lingering dread. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 47 (2), 34-39 TERTIARY Listings of publications dealing with the event and its aftermath can be found in numerous indexes, abstracts, databases and on the Internet. EXAMPLE: Indexes and Databases New York Times Index, LexisNexis Academic, Internet (For newspaper articles) Applied Science and Technology Index (For technical articles in journals) Engineering Index (print) or Compendex (electronic) (For scholarly articles, conference papers, and research reports) Readers Guide to Periodical Literature and EBSC0hosts (For popular articles aimed at a general audience) Energy Citations Database (http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/) (For government reports) Figure 2.7 The cycle of information as it moves along a timeline. POPULAR AND SCHOLARLY SOURCES Books and periodical publications found in libraries vary as to the level of scholarship. Knowing something about the characteristics of each level—popular or scholarly will help you identify the level of scholarship that is appropriate for your research. Scholarly information is usually produced by scholars for education or research purposes. It is often peer reviewed before it is published. It is intended for scholars and students in special fields. Popular material has been written in a language and format suitable for the general public as opposed to academics. If you are looking for an analytical treatment of the topic "effects of television violence on viewers,' you are more likely to find the information you need in the scholarly journal, Psychological Bulletin, rather than in the popular magazine, Time. In addition to popular magazines and scholarly journals, periodical literature also includes trade/professional journals that cover news and information about specific businesses or industries, usually published by a trade association or a business. Chapter 8 gives more detail about the types of periodical literature and the indexes and databases used to locate specific articles. Popular and scholarly sources are not limited to periodical literature. Reference books, books that you locate in the library's catalog, and Internet sources may also be popular or scholarly. World Book Encyclopedia, for example, is a general encyclopedia intended for a wide audience; the Encyclopedia of Psychology is a specialized subject encyclopedia written by authors selected for their expertise in the field. The comparisons listed in Figure 2.8 will help you understand the differences between popular and scholarly literature. Popular Scholarly Purpose To inform or entertain To communicate research and scholarly ideas to the academic and professionat communities Intended audience General public Scholars, researchers, practitioners, or students in a particular field or discipline Content Covers a wide variety of public interest topics Brief articles—usually 1-5 pages. Highly specialized topics Technical or analytical articles Long articles—often over 5 pages Authors Usually professional journalists or freelance writers Experts or scholars (e.g., professors, researchers, specialists in their field) Publishers Commercial publishers Professional associations, university presses, research organizations, and publishers who specialize in a particular field Language Language easy to understand No jargon or specialized terms Specialized vocabulary and style of writing familiar to scholarly readers in the field (professors, researchers or students) Documentation Few, if any, cited references or bibliographies Includes cited references Advertisements Contains advertisements Usually none, but minimal if included Evaluations Rely on the publication's reputation among readers and its marketing success Articles and books are usually peer reviewed, i.e., reviewed by a person or persons of similar or equal expertise to that of the author Examples Time; US News and World Report; Sports Illustrated; PC Magazine; Rolling Stone; The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2006; If Life Is a Bowl of Cherries, What Am I Doing in the Pits? (Book) by Erma Bombeck Psychological Bulletin; JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association; American Historical Review; Mental Measurements Yearbook; Modern Fiction Studies; The Impossibility of Religious Freedom (book) by Winnifred F. Sullivan (Princeton University Press) Figure 2.8 C) Popular and scholarly literature: a comparison. THE SEARCH STRATEGY As you begin your search for sources of information, it is easy to feel confused considering the vast amount and the different types of information available. Where do you start? A better question is, "How do you start?" The first thing you need to do is develop a search strategy, a plan of research. This is a three-step process: 1) determine appropriate search terms that will guide your research, 2) analyze the type of information sources you need, and 3) locate the sources. DETERMINING APPROPRIATE SEARCH TERMS The key to locating information in any of the library or Internet tools is the use of appropriate search terms. The more focused and specific your search, the more successful you will be in retrieving appropriate information. o Compile a list of key terms based on your thesis statement and outline. o Add any related terms that might lead to more information. 0 Use the sources listed in Figure 2.2 to help you select keywords. 0 Include words that have narrower or broader meanings than your original terms. ANALYZING INFORMATION NEEDS Analyzing your information needs is best done by focusing on a set of questions that will help you determine the aspects of the topic you wish to explore. ? Treatment of topic ? Timeliness ? Focus ? Level of scholarship Do you need facts? Opinions? Background Information? Statistics? Analysis? Do you need an in-depth treatment of the topic? Do you need an account of an event as it happened? Primary sources allow you to get as close to an event or an account as possible. Do you need analyses or interpretations? Secondazy sources based on primary sources will provide these. For a research paper, a good rule of thumb is to choose both primary and secondary sources. Is timeliness an issue? Do you need current infon-nation? Do you need a historical perspective? If your topic is scientific, you will probably need recent information. For example, research on avian flu will require the most recent information available. Research in the humanities is not usually dependent on current information. For example, a paper on the genre of science fiction literature does not require current publications. Do you need a specific subject area or discipline such as humanities, social science, or science? For example, if you are researching the causes of eating disorders among teenagers, would you look for information in the medical field or would you look in the social and behavioral sciences? Do you need brief facts, not backed by research? Do you need a description of an event? If so, you should use popular sources. If you need a more indepth treatment of a topic, you should consult scholarly sources. LOCATING INFORMATION SOURCES You are now ready to locate the information sources that you will use in writing your research paper. Some of the materials you use will be located in the library in various formats such as paper, microform, CD-ROM and DVD. Others will be on the Internet. Figure 2.9 provides a basic guide to selecting appropriate materials. Later chapters of this book provide more detailed descriptions of the major sources to consult in the research process. Guide to Selecting Sources Information Sources to Consult Finding Aids Preliminary Ideas Library of Congress Subject Headings magazine and journal articles consult reference staff browse current periodicals Internet Overview of Topic general encyclopedias books periodicals consult reference staff library catalog indexes and abstracts Definitions dictionaries library catalog Primary Sources newspapers research reports manuscripts (archives) government publications library catalog databases (e.g., LexisNexis Academic) Internet Secondary Sources books magazine and journal articles subject encyclopedias library catalogs indexes and abstracts databases Facts almanacs and yearbooks statistics government publications library catalogs statistical indexes Internet Current Information newspapers magazines and journals indexes and abstracts databases (e.g., InfoTrac) Historical Information books encyclopedias and reference books periodicals library catalog browse reference shelves indexes and abstracts Evaluative Sources book reviews biographies indexes to book reviews Internet Figure 2.9 0 Selecting appropriate sources. Asking for Help Reference librarians can provide valuable assistance with research questions if they know what you are looking for. The key to getting assistance is asking the right questions. Guidelines Obtaining maximum help from the librarian Explain the purpose of the research. Give the assignment specifications—for example, length of paper, number of sources needed, and due date. Explain the level of difficulty of information you need—scholarly, technical, popular, easy-tounderstand. Give the time framework—current, historical. Describe the kinds of sources needed—primary, secondary, or both. Ask for assistance for finding specific information that may be difficult to locate—statistics, dates, little-known facts. EVALUATING SOURCES Evaluate each source that you locate for its suitability and reliability. Ask Yourself Is the information relevant to your thesis and the points covered in your outline (argumentative) . or is it relevant to the proposed research (objective/analytical)? Is the information sufficiently up-to-date? Is there a later edition of the work? Is the source reliable? Does the work reflect a particular bias or prejudice? Use the criteria listed in Chapter 6 to evaluate the information you find. TAKING NOTES As you examine each source, you should take notes on all the important information and sources you might want to use in your paper. The best way to take notes is to use separate note cards or uniform sheets of paper for each topic that you locate. (If you are using a word processor, you need only create a separate document for each topic.) Each note card or note document should contain a heading that is keyed to a heading in your outline. As you take notes, it is best to paraphrase or summarize the words of the author, although sometimes direct quotations are needed for emphasis or for authoritativeness. In either case it is important to retain the author's intended meaning. Note the page or pages on which you found the information. Include all the essential bibliographic information: author or editor's name, title of the work, series (if any), publisher, date, and place of publication. It is helpful to include the call numbers of books and periodicals and the URL (Internet address) of materials found on the Web in case you need to go back to these. WRITING THE PAPER Once you are satisfied that sufficient information has been gathered to support all the points in your outline (argumentative) or found previous, relevant research (objective/analytical), you can begin to write a first draft of the thesis paper or research proposal. Sort the notes so that they are grouped under topics that fit the headings in the outline. Allow yourself sufficient time for the actual writing. It may take several drafts to achieve the well-written paper or the logical research proposal. As you compose your paper, pay careful attention to all the elements of good writing: effective phrasing of ideas, good paragraph development, and logical flow of the paragraphs into a unified paper or research report. DOCUMENTING THE SOURCES In academic research papers and in any other writing that includes ideas and facts gathered from other sources the sources of the information must be clearly documented. To document a research paper means to acknowledge, or cite, the sources used or consulted. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism. Another pitfall associated with research is the violation of copyright laws. What Is Plagiarism? According to Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary to plagiarize is "to steal and pass off the ideas or words of another as one's own or use another's production without crediting the source" (http://www. merriam-webster.com/). In all universities, plagiarism is considered academic misconduct and may have serious consequences, including expulsion. Two well-known authors were recently discredited when they were accused of plagiarism. Their explanation was that they had simply forgotten to place quotation marks around some of the "borrowed" text. Many times authors do not intend to plagiarize. In the course of taking notes, or in reading, they fail to make a note of a source they are using. Whether plagiarism is intentional or not, it is a serious offence which can mar one's academic record. The Internet has made plagiarism both tempting and easy. The enormous volume of information tempts one into believing that "borrowing" from such a large number of sources will go undetected. It is easy to retrieve information from Internet sources and cut and paste so that the reader is unaware that the information is taken from other sources. Despite the huge volume of information on the Intemet, plagiarism is easy to detect. There are search engines that are designed specifically to detect the theft of information. What to Document How to Document Direct quotations, that is the exact wording, whether written or spoken, taken from another source Put in quotation marks and acknowledge the source with proper documentation (parenthetical, footnotes, endnotes, list of works cited). Another person's ideas, opinions, or theories, whether from a written work, an interview, a conversation, an e-mail, etc. Acknowledge the source with proper documentation (parenthetical, footnotes, endnotes, list of works cited). Any graphics such as statistics, graphs, charts, or art work that are not your own creation Acknowledge the source with proper documentation (parenthetical, footnotes, endnotes, list of works cited). Paraphrases or summaries of another person's spoken or written words Acknowledge the source with proper documentation (parenthetical, footnotes, endnotes, list of works cited). Ideas not your own which might be controversial or argumentative Attribute to the author in the text of the paper and acknowledge the source with proper documentation (parenthetical, footnotes, endnotes, list of works cited). (See Fawn Brodie citation example below.) What Not to Document 0 Ideas that evolved in your own mind, even though they are a result of your research. o Facts considered common knowledge. Ordinarily you should not have difficulty determining what is common knowledge. Some facts will seem obvious, such as dates of great events in history. Others will appear repeatedly in the course of reviewing the literature. How to Avoid Unintentional Plagiarism Have you ever thought "I wish I had said that" when you read something that is really well written or that expresses the ideas and points you wish to make. It is easy to overlook the fact that these are not your words or your ideas, and without realizing it, you appropriate them as your own. This is plagiarism, regardless of your intention. As you gather information keep careful records of the sources you consult. Be sure to include all the information needed to cite the source accurately and completely: author's name, title, publication information, and page numbers. For periodicals include the volume and issue number, date, and pages. When using Internet sources be certain to note the URL and date you visited the site and any other information needed for a complete citation. When you cut and paste from various sites, you need to document each source that you use. When paraphrasing or summarizing, check that you have correctly interpreted the intent of the original author and that you have acknowledged the source. Paraphrasing is rewording a text, while retaining the original meaning. Once you have finished your paper, check it against the original sources to make sure that you have properly documented any exact wording you may have used. Proper documentation requires that you use a standardized format. There are several guides for documentation including MLA, APA, Chicago, and Turabian (see Table 2.1). Your instructor will usually require you to use a certain documentation style. Appendix A contains brief guides to APA and MLA styles. Some definitions of plagiarism, along with examples, can be found at: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r plagiar.html http://tlt.its.psu.edu/plagiarism/tutorial/ http://www.chem.uky.edu/courses/common/plagiarism.html http://www.indiana.edu/æwts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml http://www.northwestern.edu/provost/students/integrity/plagiarism.html http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QPA plagiarism.html Copyright Copyright is the legal provision that guarantees owners the exclusive right to reproduce, sell, distribute, or display a work that they have created, including any published or unpublished literary, musical, dramatic, pictorial or other audiovisual work, and postings on the Internet. No one else may make a copy or use any copyrighted works without explicit consent of the owner, except for "fair use" in education, research, and news reporting. Even so, there are limitations as to what can be copied and the extent of use of copied materials. For example, it is permissable to copy an article for personal use; however, it is not permissable to make multiple copies of the article for distribution. Works that are not copyrighted are said to be in the public domain. That is, anyone has the right to reproduce or use them without restriction. Certain government publications and works produced before 1923 are usually in the public domain. The terms of the copyright vary but most works produced after 1978 may be copyrighted for the life of the owner plus 70 years. Copyright has taken on new significance with the advent of computer technology and the Internet. It is possible to copy text and images from Web pages and to paste them into a document you might be creating. It is also tempting to use existing HTML coding to create Web pages. While you may use parts of a text if you document your sources properly, you may not use the entire pages, or images, or HTML text without permission of the owner of the copyrighted material. Forms of Documentation While there is no one "correct" form for documentation, convention dictates that in a formal research paper the writer must follow a prescribed style—one that is consistent throughout and that communicates clearly and accurately the sources that are being documented. Your instructor may require that you use a certain style to document research for a particular assignment. The library has style manuals that provide models for documenting research. Many English composition textbooks contain a section on writing and documenting a research paper. You can also find style manuals on the Internet. The style manual that is recomrnended by disciplines in the arts and humanities is the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (MLA style). The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA style) is preferred by scholars in the social and behavioral sciences. Other fields, particularly in the sciences, use documentation styles adapted for their particular needs. Table 2.1 is a selected list of style manuals useful for documenting research. The citations used in documentation sources generally appear in two places in a research paper: 1. within the text, immediately following the quotation, phrase, or sentence to which the citation refers, and O)le 2.1 Style Manuals The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation. 18th ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Law Review Association, 2005. The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers. 15th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2003. Council of Biology Editors. Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers. 6th ed. Bethesda Council of Biology Editors, 1994. Garner, Diane L., and Diane H. Smith. The Complete Guide to Citing Government Information Resources: A Manual for Writers and Librarians. Rev. ed. Chicago: ALA, 1993. Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 6th ed. New York: MLA, 2003. Li, Ma, and Nancy C. Crane. Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information. Rev. ed. Medford, NJ: Information Today, 1996. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), 5th ed. Washington: APA, 2001. Turabian, Kate L A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 6th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996. Uncle Sam: Brief Guide to Citing Government Publications. 16 July 2002. Government Publications Department, Library, U. of Memphis. 1 Oct. 2005 <http://exlibris.memphis.edu/resource/unclesam/citeweb.html>. 2 : at the end of the paper in a list of "Works Cited" (MLA style) or "References" (APA style) (see Table 2.2 and Table 2.3). Citations within the Text There are several methods of acknowledging the sources used within the text. parenthetical references, notes (footnotes or endnotes), and full bibliographic citation within the text. Parenthetical References The use of parenthetical references in which citations in the text are keyed to a list of Works Cited (MLA) or References (APA) is the preferred method for documenting sources used in a research paper. The entries in the Works Cited or References list contain full bibliographic descriptions of each of the sources that were used and acknowledged in the text. The source in the text is identified by a brief reference in parentheses to the corresponding reference in the list. The examples below are typical of parenthetical references in the MLA and APA styles. MLA style In the text of the paper: "Women at the highest levels comprise only 10% of senior managers in Fortune 500 companies" (Meyerson and Fletcher 126) . The author's last name and the page cited in the text is sufficient for identification. If the author is mentioned in the text, it is not necessary to repeat the author's name in the citation. Meyerson and Fletcher contend that it took a revolution to get women where they are today, but now a softer approach based on "small-wins" or incremental changes that chip away at biases is needed to shatter the glass ceiling (126) . If the parenthetical reference is to a work that is listed by title in Works Cited, use the title or a shortened form of the title. The reference "World" is sufficient to identify the title and page reference for the article cited below. Figures show that British women have made little progress in breaking into professional ranks in the 20th century ("World" 42) . In the Works Cited list: Note that in research papers and unpublished manuscripts, words that are normally in italics, such as titles, are underlined. Meyerson, Debra E . and Joyce K. Fletcher. Modest Manifesto for Shattering the Glass Ceiling." Harvard Business Review 78.1 (2000) : 12636 . "Ä World Fit for Women: Changes Affecting the Role of Women Over Time . The Economist. 31 Dec. 1999: 41-42. ABI/Inform Global. ProQuest Direct. Louisiana State University. 22 Feb. 2000 http://infotrac. galegroup . com/ . APA style In the text of the paper: Note that in APA style, the date of the publication is considered to be important and is given prominence in both the citation within the text and in the references list. The citation gives the authors' last names, the date of the publication, and the page number which is referenced. "Women at the highest levels comprise only of senior managers in Fortune 500 companies" (Meyerson & Fletcher, 2000, p. 126) . When the author is mentioned in the text, it is not necessary to repeat the author's name in the citation. The date of the publication should follow the author's name. Meyerson and Fletcher (2000) contend that it took a revolution to get women where they are today, but now a softer approach based on "small-wins" or incremental changes that chip away at biases is needed to shatter the glass ceiling (p. 126) If the parenthetical reference is to a work that is listed by title in References, cite in parentheses the first few words of the title and the year of publication. Figures show that British women have made little progress in breaking into professional ranks in the 20th century ("World," 1999, p. 42) . In the References list: Meyerson, D. E. & Fletcher, J. K. (2000) . modest manifesto for shattering the glass ceiling. Harvard Business Review, 78 (1) , 126-136. world fit for women: Changes affecting the role of women over time . (1999, December 31) . [Electronic version] . The Economist, 41-42. Notes Some scholars, particularly in the arts and humanities, prefer to use notes to document sources used. Notes cited in the text may appear at the bottom of the page (footnotes) or at the end of the paper (endnotes). When notes are used for documentation, the documented material is indicated in the text with a superscript (a raised Arabic number) placed after the punctuation mark of material that is cited. The numbers are keyed to numbers in the notes. The first reference to the work contains full bibliographic information—author, title, publication information, and a page reference. Subsequent references to the same work are cited in brief. The author's last name followed by the page reference is sufficient. The note numbers should be consecutive throughout the paper. When endnotes are used for documentation, it is usually not necessary to include a separate bibliography or Works Cited list in the paper. In the text of the paper: A number of government policies and a stronger business culture have resulted in a more favorable climate for women in business . L "When median earnings of women are compared with those of men of a similar age and similar levels of education, major fields of study, and occupational characteristics, however, the earnings gap narrowed progressively. " 2 Although affirmative action litigation has significantly increased hiring of women in lower echelons of government, female representat ion in higher positions such as city councilors or mayors was not significantly affected. 3 2: In the footnotes or endnotes: Robert L. Nelson and William P. Bridges, Legalizing Gender InequalCourts, Markets, and Unequal Pay for Women in America, Structural Analysis in the Social Sciences, 16 (New York: Cambridge, 1999) 10 . Daniel E. Hecker, "Earnings of College Graduates: Women Compared with Men," Monthly Labor Review 121.3 (1998) EBSCOhost: Academic Search Elite, LLN (Louisiana Library Network) , Baton Rouge 22 Feb. 2000 http://search.epnet.com/ . Nelson and Bridges 6. CAUTION the terms ibid. (in the same place), op. cit. (in the work cited) and loc. cit. (in the is no longer recommended in most style manuals. Rather, the work being cited is the relevant page numbers. In most cases the author's last name is sufficient the work. If two or more different titles by the same author are being cited, the citainclude a shortened form of the title after the author's last name along with the number for that citation. References to Gwendolyn Mink's The Wages of MotherWelfare's End would be cited in subsequent references as follows: Wages 48. Welfare's 150. The use of place cited) identified with to identify tion should relevant page hood and her Mink, Mink, Full Bibliographic Citation in the Text Complete bibliographical references within the text should be used only if there are one or two citations in the entire manuscript. This type of citation deprives the reader of the benefits of a list of references and interrupts the flow of the text. Documentation at the End of the Paper The Works Cited list (MLA) (see Table 2.2) or References list (APA) (see Table 2.3) identifies all the books, articles from periodicals, government documents, theses and dissertations, articles from reference books, information from the Internet, and other sources of information that were used in writing the paper. Each entry, referred to as a bibliographical entry, contains all the essential elements needed to identify the work—author, title, series, publication information, depending on the work being described. The Works Cited or References list is placed at the end of the paper. The term Works Consulted is used if the list includes additional works that were not cited in the text of the paper. Bibliography Another name for a list of sources is a bibliography. It is a broader term that encompasses other types of listings such as suggested readings on a topic. A bibliography may also list works by one author (an author bibliography), or it may list works on a subject (a subject bibliography). A selective bibliography includes only some of the possible references, while a complete bibliography lists all the references available. Bibliographies with descriptive notes about each entry are called annotated bibliographies. The items in a bibliography may be grouped according to their form of publication. For example, books may be listed in one group and periodicals in a second group. Within each group, the items are arranged in alphabetical order.