Biopsychology Chapter 1 PDF

Chapter 1 Biopsychology as a Neuroscience What Is Biopsychology, Anyway? Image Source/Alamy Stock Photo Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives What Is Biopsychology? LO 1.1...

Chapter 1 Biopsychology as a Neuroscience What Is Biopsychology, Anyway? Image Source/Alamy Stock Photo Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives What Is Biopsychology? LO 1.1 Define and discuss what is meant by biopsychology. LO 1.2 Discuss the origins of the field of biopsychology. LO 1.3 List the six fields of neuroscience that are particularly relevant to biopsychological inquiry. What Types of LO 1.4 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of humans and Research Characterize nonhumans as subjects in biopsychological research. the Biopsychological LO 1.5 Compare experiments, quasiexperimental studies, and case Approach? studies, emphasizing their utility in the study of causal effects. LO 1.6 Compare pure and applied research. What Are the Divisions of LO 1.7 Describe the division of biopsychology known as physiological Biopsychology? psychology. 25 M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 25 22/01/2021 10:36  26 Chapter 1 LO 1.8 Describe the division of biopsychology known as psychopharmacology. LO 1.9 Describe the division of biopsychology known as neuropsychology. LO 1.10 Describe the division of biopsychology known as psychophysiology. LO 1.11 Describe the division of biopsychology known as cognitive neuroscience. LO 1.12 Describe the division of biopsychology known as comparative psychology. How Do Biopsychologists LO 1.13 Explain how converging operations has contributed to the study Conduct Their Work? of Korsakoff’s syndrome. LO 1.14 Explain scientific inference with reference to research on eye movements and the visual perception of motion. Thinking Critically about LO 1.15 Define critical thinking and evaluate biopsychological Biopsychological Claims claims. The appearance of the human brain is far from impressive this chapter, we would like to tell you about the case of (see Figure 1.1). The human brain is a squishy, ­wrinkled, Jimmie G. (Sacks, 1985), which will give you a taste of the walnut-shaped hunk of tissue weighing about 1.3 interesting things that lie ahead. kilograms. It looks more like something you might find washed up on a beach than one of the wonders of the world—which it surely is. Despite its disagreeable Figure 1.1 The human brain: Appearances can be deceiving! appearance, the human brain is an amazingly intricate network of neurons (cells that receive and transmit electrochemical signals) and many other cell types. Contemplate for a moment the complexity of your own brain’s neural circuits. Consider the 90 billion neurons in complex array (Walløe, Pakkenberg & Fabricius, 2014), the estimated 100 trillion connections among them, and the almost infinite number of paths that neural signals can follow through this morass (Zimmer, 2011). The complexity of the human brain is hardly surprising, considering what it can do. An organ capable of creating a Mona Lisa, an artificial limb, and a supersonic aircraft; of traveling to the moon and to the depths of the sea; and of experiencing the wonders of an alpine sunset, a newborn infant, and a reverse slam dunk must be complex. Paradoxically, neuroscience (the scientific study of the nervous system) may prove to be the brain’s ultimate challenge: Does the brain have the capacity to understand something as complex as itself (see Gazzaniga, 2010)? Neuroscience comprises several related disciplines. The primary purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to one of them: biopsychology. Each of this chapter’s five mod- ules characterizes the neuroscience of biopsychology in a different way. However, before you proceed to the body of UHB Trust/The Image Bank/Getty Images M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 26 22/01/2021 10:36  Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 27 THINKING CREATIVELY ABOUT BIOPSYCHOLOGY. The Case of Jimmie G., the Man We are all fed a steady diet of biopsychological informa- Frozen in Time tion, misinformation, and opinion—by television, news- papers, the Internet, friends, relatives, teachers, and so on. Jimmie G. was a friendly 49-year-old. He liked to chat about his As a result, you likely already hold strong views about school days and his time in the navy, both of which he could many of the topics you will encounter in this text. Because describe in remarkable detail. Jimmie was an intelligent man these preconceptions are shared by many biopsychological with superior abilities in math and science. So why was he a researchers, they have often impeded scientific progress, patient in a neurological ward? and some of the most important advances in biopsycho- When Jimmie talked about his past, there were hints of his problem. When he talked about his school days, he used the logical science have been made by researchers who have past tense; but when he recounted his early experiences in the managed to overcome the restrictive effects of conven- navy, he switched to the present tense. More worrisome was tional thinking and have taken creative new approaches. that he never talked about anything that happened to him after Indeed, thinking creatively (thinking in productive, his time in the navy. unconventional ways) is the cornerstone of any science. Jimmie was tested by eminent neurologist Oliver Sacks, In this text, we describe research that involves thinking and a few simple questions revealed a curious fact: Jimmie “outside the box,” we try to be creative in our analysis of believed he was 19. When asked to describe what he saw in a the research we are presenting, or we encourage you to mirror, Jimmie became so frantic and confused that Dr. Sacks base your thinking on the evidence rather than on widely immediately took the mirror out of the room. accepted views. Returning a few minutes later, Dr. Sacks was greeted by a once-again cheerful Jimmie, who acted as if he had never seen CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS. Clinical (pertaining to illness Sacks before. Indeed, even when Sacks suggested they had or treatment) considerations are woven through the fabric met recently, Jimmie was certain they had not. of biopsychology. There are two aspects to the clinical Then Dr. Sacks asked where Jimmie thought he was. Jimmie replied that all the beds and patients made him think implications theme: (1) much of what biopsychologists that the place was a hospital. But he couldn’t understand why learn about the functioning of a healthy brain comes he would be in a hospital. He was afraid that he might have been from studying dysfunctional brains; and (2) many of admitted because he was sick but didn’t know it. the discoveries of biopsychologists have relevance for Further testing confirmed what Dr. Sacks feared. Although the treatment of brain dysfunction. One of our major Jimmie had good sensory, motor, and cognitive abilities, he focuses is on the interplay between brain dysfunction and had one terrible problem: He forgot everything that was said biopsychological research. or shown to him within a few seconds. Basically, Jimmie could not remember anything that had happened to him since his THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE. Although the early 20s, and he was not going to remember anything that events that led to the evolution of the human species happened to him for the rest of his life. Dr. Sacks was stunned can never be determined with certainty, thinking of the by the implications of Jimmie’s condition. environmental pressures that likely led to the evolution Jimmie’s situation was heart-wrenching. Unable to form of our brains and behavior often leads to important new lasting memories, he was, in effect, a man frozen in biopsychological insights. This approach is called the time, a man without a recent past and no prospects for a evolutionary perspective. An important component of future, stuck in a continuous present, lacking any context or meaning. the evolutionary perspective is the comparative approach (trying to understand biological phenomena by comparing them in different species). Throughout this text, you will find that we humans have learned much about ourselves by studying species that are related to us through Remember Jimmie G.; you will encounter him again evolution. Indeed, the evolutionary approach has proven later in this chapter. to be one of the cornerstones of modern biopsychological inquiry. Four Major Themes of This Text NEUROPLASTICITY. Until the early 1990s, most You will learn many new facts in this text—new findings, neuroscientists thought of the brain as a three-dimensional concepts, terms, and the like. But more importantly, many array of neural elements “wired” together in a massive years from now, long after you have forgotten most of those network of circuits. The complexity of this “wiring diagram” facts, you will still be carrying with you productive new of the brain was staggering, but it failed to capture one of the ways of thinking. We have selected four of these for special brain’s most important features. In the past four decades, emphasis: Thinking Creatively, Clinical Implications, the research has clearly demonstrated that the adult brain is not Evolutionary Perspective, and Neuroplasticity. a static network of neurons: It is a plastic (changeable) organ M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 27 22/01/2021 10:36  28 Chapter 1 that continuously grows and changes in response to an individual’s environment and experiences. The discovery of neuroplasticity is arguably the single most influential What Is Biopsychology? discovery in modern neuroscience. As you will learn, it This module introduces you to the discipline of biopsychol- is a major component of many areas of biopsychological ogy. We begin by exploring the definition and origins of research. biopsychology. Next, we examine how biopsychology is You have probably heard of neuroplasticity. It is a hot related to the various other disciplines of neuroscience. topic in the popular media, where it is upheld as a panacea: A means of improving brain function or recovering from Defining Biopsychology brain dysfunction. However, contrary to popular belief, the plasticity of the human brain is not always beneficial. For LO 1.1 Define and discuss what is meant by example, it also contributes to various forms of brain dys- biopsychology. function (e.g., Tomaszcyk et al., 2014). Later on, you will Biopsychology is the scientific study of the biology of see examples of both the positive and the negative sides of behavior (see Dewsbury, 1991). Some refer to this field as neuroplasticity. psychobiology, behavioral biology, or behavioral neuroscience; but we prefer the term biopsychology because it denotes a biological approach to the study of psychology rather than a Emerging Themes of This Text psychological approach to the study of biology: Psychology As you read through this text you will start to see other commands center stage in this text. Psychology is the sci- themes in addition to the ones we outlined for you in the entific study of behavior—the scientific study of all overt previous section. Many of them you will spot on your activities of the organism as well as all the internal processes own. Here we highlight two “emerging” themes: themes that are presumed to underlie them (e.g., learning, memory, that could become major themes in future editions of motivation, perception, emotion). this text. THINKING ABOUT EPIGENETICS. Most people believe What Are the Origins of their genes (see Chapter 2) control the characteristics they Biopsychology? are born with, the person they become, and the qualities LO 1.2 Discuss the origins of the field of of their children and grandchildren. In this text, you will biopsychology. learn that genes are only a small part of what determines who you are. Instead, you are the product of ongoing inter- The study of the biology of behavior has a long history, actions between your genes and your experiences—such but biopsychology did not develop into a major neuro- interactions are at the core of a field of study known as scientific discipline until the 20th century. Although it is epigenetics. But epigenetics isn’t just about you: We now not possible to specify the exact date of biopsychology’s know that the experiences you have during your lifetime birth, the publication of The Organization of Behavior in 1949 can be passed on to future generations. This is a funda- by Donald Hebb played a key role in its emergence (see mentally different way of thinking about who we are and Brown & Milner, 2003). In his book, Hebb developed the how we are tied to both our ancestors and descendants. first comprehensive theory of how complex psychological Epigenetics is currently having a major influence on bio- phenomena, such as perceptions, emotions, thoughts, and psychological research. memories, might be produced by brain activity. Hebb’s theory did much to discredit the view that psychological CONSCIOUSNESS. As you will see, this text also exam- functioning is too complex to have its roots in the physi- ines different aspects of consciousness (the perception ology and chemistry of the brain. Hebb based his theory or awareness of some aspect of one’s self or the world) on experiments involving both human and nonhuman from a biopsychological perspective. Indeed, one major animals, on clinical case studies, and on logical arguments goal of biopsychological research is to establish a better developed from his own insightful observations of daily understanding of the neural correlates of consciousness life. This eclectic approach has become a hallmark of bio- (see Ward, 2013; Blackmore, 2018). To give you a taste of psychological inquiry. this emerging theme, you will soon appreciate that (1) we In comparison to physics, chemistry, and biology, bio- are not consciously aware of much of the information we psychology is an infant—a healthy, rapidly growing infant, receive from our environments, (2) there are many dif- but an infant nonetheless. In this text, you will reap the ben- ferent states of consciousness, and (3) there can be dra- efits of biopsychology’s youth. Because biopsychology does matic alterations in consciousness as a result of brain not have a long history, you will be able to move quickly to dysfunction. the excitement of modern research. M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 28 22/01/2021 10:36  Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 29 How Is Biopsychology Related to the nonhuman subjects, it can take the form of either formal experiments or nonexperimental studies, and it can be Other Disciplines of Neuroscience? either pure or applied. LO 1.3 List the six fields of neuroscience that are particularly relevant to biopsychological inquiry. Human and Nonhuman Subjects Neuroscience is a team effort, and biopsychologists are LO 1.4 Compare the advantages and disadvantages important members of the team (see Albright, Kandel, & of humans and nonhumans as subjects in Posner, 2000; Kandel & Squire, 2000). Biopsychology can be biopsychological research. further characterized by its relation to other neuroscientific disciplines. Both human and nonhuman animals are the subjects of bio- Biopsychologists are neuroscientists who bring to their psychological research. Of the nonhumans, mice and rats research a knowledge of behavior and of the methods of are the most common subjects; however, cats, dogs, and behavioral research. It is their behavioral orientation and nonhuman primates are also commonly studied. expertise that make their contribution to neuroscience Humans have several advantages over other animals unique (see Cacioppo & Decety, 2009). You will be able to as experimental subjects of biopsychological research: They better appreciate the importance of this contribution if you can follow instructions, they can report their subjective consider that the ultimate purpose of the nervous system is experiences, and their cages are easier to clean. Of course, to produce and control behavior (see Grillner & Dickinson, we are joking about the cages, but the joke does serve to 2002). Think about it. draw attention to one advantage humans have over other Biopsychology is an integrative discipline. species of experimental subjects: Humans are often cheaper. Biopsychologists draw together knowledge from the other Because only the highest standards of animal care are neuroscientific disciplines and apply it to the study of acceptable, the cost of maintaining an animal laboratory can behavior. The following are a few of the disciplines of neu- be prohibitive for all but the most well-funded researchers. roscience that are particularly relevant to biopsychology: Of course, the greatest advantage humans have as subjects in a field aimed at understanding the intricacies Neuroanatomy. The study of the structure of the ner- of human brain function is that they have human brains. vous system (see Chapter 3). In fact, you might wonder why biopsychologists would Neurochemistry. The study of the chemical bases of bother studying nonhuman subjects at all. The answer lies neural activity (see Chapters 4 and 15). in the evolutionary continuity of the brain. The brains of Neuroendocrinology. The study of interactions humans are similar in fundamental ways to the brains of between the nervous system and the endocrine system other mammals—they differ mainly in their overall size and (see Chapters 13 and 17). the extent of their cortical development. In other words, Neuropathology. The study of nervous system dys- the differences between the brains of humans and those of function (see Chapters 10 and 18). related species are more quantitative than qualitative, and thus many of the principles of human brain function can Neuropharmacology. The study of the effects of drugs be clarified by the study of nonhumans (see Hofman, 2014; on neural activity (see Chapters 4, 15, and 18). Katzner & Weigelt, 2013; Krubitzer & Stolzenberg, 2014). Neurophysiology. The study of the functions and One major difference between human and nonhuman activities of the nervous system (see Chapter 4). subjects is that humans volunteer to be subjects. To empha- size this point, human subjects are more commonly referred to as participants or volunteers. What Types of Nonhuman animals have three advantages over humans as subjects in biopsychological research. The first Research Characterize is that the brains and behavior of nonhuman subjects are simpler than those of human participants. Hence, the study the Biopsychological of nonhuman species is often more likely to reveal funda- Approach? mental brain–behavior interactions. The second advan- tage is that insights frequently arise from the comparative Biopsychology is broad and diverse. Biopsychologists approach, the study of biological processes by comparing study many different phenomena, and they approach different species. For example, comparing the behavior of their research in many different ways. This module dis- species that do not have a cerebral cortex with the behavior cusses three major dimensions along which biopsycho- of species that do can provide valuable clues about corti- logical research may vary: It can involve either human or cal function. The third advantage is that it is possible to M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 29 22/01/2021 10:36  30 Chapter 1 conduct research on laboratory animals that, for ethical rea- Finally, replacement refers to the replacing of studies using sons, is not possible with human participants. This is not to animal subjects with alternate techniques, such as experi- say that the study of nonhuman animals is not governed menting on cell cultures or using computer models. by a strict code of ethics (see Blakemore et al., 2012)—it is. One of the earliest examples of replacement is the now However, there are fewer ethical constraints on the study of ubiquitous crash-test dummy in the auto industry. Prior to laboratory species than on the study of humans. the advent of the crash test dummy, live pigs were some- In our experience, most biopsychologists display con- times used as passengers in automobile crash tests. This siderable concern for their subjects, whether they are of example of replacement makes an important point about their own species or not; however, ethical issues are not left how notions of what is ethically acceptable in animal experi- to the discretion of the individual researcher. All biopsy- mentation are in constant flux: Now that dummies are a via- chological research, whether it involves human participants ble alternative, nobody would be in favor of using pigs for or nonhuman subjects, is regulated by independent com- crash tests. The recent development of complex computer mittees according to strict ethical guidelines: “Researchers models of nonhuman and human brains (see Frackowiak & cannot escape the logic that if the animals we observe are Markram, 2015) might change the very nature of biopsycho- reasonable models of our own most intricate actions, then logical research in your lifetime. they must be respected as we would respect our own sensi- bilities” (Ulrich, 1991, p. 197). If you are concerned about the ethics of biopsycho- Experiments and Nonexperiments logical research on nonhuman animals, you aren’t alone. LO 1.5 Compare experiments, quasiexperimental Both of us wrestle with various aspects of it. For example, studies, and case studies, emphasizing their a recurring concern we both have is whether the potential utility in the study of causal effects. benefits of a research study outweigh the stress induced in Biopsychological research involves both experiments and the nonhuman subjects. nonexperimental studies. Two common types of nonexperi- When people are asked for their opinion on nonhuman mental studies are quasiexperimental studies and case studies. animal research, most fall into one of two camps: (1) Those in support of animal research—if and only if both the suf- EXPERIMENTS. The experiment is the method used by fering of animals is minimized and the potential benefits scientists to study causation, that is, to find out what causes to humankind cannot be obtained by other methods, or what. As such, it has been almost single-handedly respon- (2) those that are opposed to animal research—because it sible for the knowledge that is the basis for our modern way causes undue stress that is not outweighed by the potential of life. It is paradoxical that a method capable of such com- benefits to humankind. plex feats is so simple. To conduct an experiment involving living subjects, the experimenter first designs two or more conditions under which the subjects will be tested. Usually, Journal Prompt 1.1 a different group of subjects is tested under each condition What are your initial feelings about biopsychological (between-subjects design), but sometimes it is possible research on nonhuman animals? If you are sympathetic to test the same group of subjects under each condition to one of the two aforementioned camps, explain your reasoning. (within-subjects design). The experimenter assigns the sub- jects to conditions, administers the treatments, and measures the outcome in such a way that there is only one relevant Because biopsychological research using nonhuman difference between the conditions being compared. This dif- subjects is controversial, it first has to be approved by a panel ference between the conditions is called the independent of individuals from a variety of backgrounds and with differ- variable. The variable measured by the experimenter to ent world views. These nonhuman animal ethics committees are assess the effect of the independent variable is called the tasked with very difficult decisions. Accordingly, it is usually dependent variable. If the experiment is done correctly, any the case that these committees will ask the researchers pro- differences in the dependent variable between the condi- posing a particular study to provide additional information tions must have been caused by the independent variable. or further justification before they approve their research. Why is it critical that there be no differences between Nonhuman animal ethics committees emphasize conditions other than the independent variable? The reason consideration of the so-called “three R’s”: Reduction, is that when there is more than one difference that could affect Refinement, and Replacement. Reduction refers to efforts to the dependent variable, it is difficult to determine whether it reduce the numbers of animals used in research. Refinement was the independent variable or the unintended difference— refers to refining research studies or the way animals are called a confounded variable—that led to the observed cared for, so as to reduce suffering. Providing animals effects on the dependent variable. Although the experimental with better living conditions is one example of refinement. method is conceptually simple, eliminating all confounded M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 30 22/01/2021 10:36  Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 31 variables can be quite difficult. Readers of research papers starts running wild, we should mention that the subjects in must be constantly on the alert for confounded variables that Lester and Gorzalka’s experiment were hamsters, not uni- have gone unnoticed by the experimenters. versity students. An experiment by Lester and Gorzalka (1988) illus- Lester and Gorzalka argued that the Coolidge effect trates the prevention of confounded variables with good had not been demonstrated in females because it is more experimental design. The experiment was a demonstration difficult to conduct well-controlled Coolidge-effect experi- of the Coolidge effect (see Lucio et al., 2014; Tlachi-López ments with females—not because females do not display et al., 2012). The Coolidge effect is the fact that a copulating a Coolidge effect. The confusion, according to Lester and male who becomes incapable of continuing to copulate with Gorzalka, stemmed from the fact that the males of most one sex partner can often recommence copulating with a mammalian species become sexually fatigued more readily new sex partner (see Figure 1.2). Before your imagination than the females. As a result, attempts to demonstrate the Coolidge effect in females are almost always confounded by Figure 1.2 President Calvin Coolidge and Mrs. Grace the fatigue of the males. When, in the midst of copulation, Coolidge. Many students think the Coolidge effect is named a female is provided with a new sex partner, the increase in after a biopsychologist named Coolidge. In fact, it is named her sexual receptivity could be either a legitimate Coolidge after President Calvin Coolidge, of whom the following story effect or a reaction to the greater vigor of the new male. is told. (If the story isn’t true, it should be.) Because female mammals usually display little sexual During a tour of a poultry farm, Mrs. Coolidge inquired of the farmer how his farm managed to produce so many eggs with fatigue, this confounded variable is not a serious problem such a small number of roosters. The farmer proudly explained in demonstrations of the Coolidge effect in males. that his roosters performed their duty dozens of times each day. Lester and Gorzalka devised a clever procedure to “Perhaps you could point that out to Mr. Coolidge,” control for this confounded variable. At the same time a replied the First Lady in a pointedly loud voice. female subject was copulating with one male (the familiar The President, overhearing the remark, asked the farmer, “Does each rooster service the same hen each time?” male), the other male to be used in the test (the unfamiliar “No,” replied the farmer, “there are many hens for each male) was copulating with another female. Then both males rooster.” were given a rest while the female was copulating with a “Perhaps you could point that out to Mrs. Coolidge,” third male. Finally, the female subject was tested with either replied the President. the familiar male or the unfamiliar male. The dependent variable was the amount of time that the female displayed lordosis (the arched-back, rump-up, tail-diverted posture of female rodent sexual receptivity) during each sex test. As Figure 1.3 illustrates, the females responded more vigor- ously to the unfamiliar males than they did to the familiar males during the third test, despite the fact that both the unfamiliar and familiar males were equally fatigued and both mounted the females with equal vigor. The purpose of this example—in case you have forgotten—is to illus- trate the critical role played by good experimental design in eliminating confounded variables. QUASIEXPERIMENTAL STUDIES. It is not possible for biopsychologists to bring the experimental method to bear on all problems of interest to them. Physical or ethical imped- iments frequently make it impossible to assign subjects to particular conditions or to administer particular conditions to the subjects who have been assigned to them. For exam- ple, experiments assessing whether frequent marijuana use causes brain dysfunction are not feasible because it would be unethical to assign a human to a condition that involves years of frequent marijuana use. (Some of you may be more concerned about the ethics of assigning humans to a control condition that involves many years of not getting high.) In such prohibitive situations, biopsychologists sometimes con- duct quasiexperimental studies—studies of groups of sub- Bettmann/Getty Images jects who have been exposed to the conditions of interest in M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 31 22/01/2021 10:36  32 Chapter 1 decided which group they would be in—by drinking alcohol Figure 1.3 The experimental design and results of Lester and Gorzalka (1988). On the third test, the female hamsters or not—the researchers had no means of ensuring that expo- were more sexually receptive to an unfamiliar male than they sure to alcohol was the only variable that distinguished the were to the male with which they had copulated on the first test. two groups. Can you think of differences other than exposure to alcohol that could reasonably be expected to exist between 35 a group of heavy drinkers and a group of abstainers— differences that could have contributed to the neuroanatomi- Mean Lordosis Duration (minutes) Male 1 Male 1 30 cal or intellectual differences that were observed between them? There are several. For example, heavy drinkers as a 25 group tend to be more poorly educated, more prone to acci- 20 dental head injury, more likely to use other drugs, and more Male 2 Male 2 likely to have poor diets. Accordingly, although quasiex- 15 perimental studies have revealed that people who are heavy drinkers tend to have more brain damage than abstainers, 10 such studies cannot prove that it was caused by the alcohol. Male 3 Have you forgotten the case of Jimmie G.? Jimmie’s 5 Male 1 condition was a product of heavy alcohol consumption. 0 CASE STUDIES. Studies that focus on a single subject, or Unfamiliar Group Familiar Group very small number of subjects, are called case studies. Such Copulated with one Copulated with one studies are rarely concerned with having control subjects. male, then with a male, then with a different one, and different one, and Rather, their focus is on providing a more in-depth picture then with yet then with the than that provided by an experiment or a quasiexperi- another one original one again mental study, and they are an excellent source of testable hypotheses. However, there is a major problem with all case Based on Lester, G. L. L., & Gorzalka, B. B. (1988) studies: their generalizability—the degree to which their results can be applied to other cases. Because individuals the real world. These studies have the appearance of experi- differ from one another in both brain function and behav- ments, but they are not true experiments because potential ior, it is important to be skeptical of any biopsychological confounded variables have not been controlled—for exam- theory based entirely on a few case studies. ple, by the random assignment of subjects to conditions. In the popular press, quasiexperiments are often con- fused with experiments. Not a week goes by where one of Pure and Applied Research us doesn’t read a news article about how an “experiment” LO 1.6 Compare pure and applied research. has shown something in human participants, when in real- ity the so-called experiment is actually a quasiexperiment. Biopsychological research can be either pure or applied. Understanding the distinction between quasiexperiments Pure research and applied research differ in a number of and experiments is very important. Experiments can tell us respects, but they are distinguished less by their own attri- whether an independent variable causes a change in a depen- butes than by the motives of the researchers involved in dent variable (assuming that the experimenter has controlled their pursuit. Pure research is motivated primarily by the for all confounding variables); quasiexperiments can tell us curiosity of the researcher—it is done solely for the purpose only that two variables are correlated with one another. For of acquiring knowledge. In contrast, applied research is example, in interpreting experiments we can reach causal con- intended to bring about some direct benefit to humankind. clusions like “frequent alcohol consumption causes brain dam- Many scientists believe that pure research will ulti- age.” In contrast, quasiexperimental studies can tell us only mately prove to be of more practical benefit than applied that “frequent alcohol use is associated with brain damage.” research. Their view is that applications flow readily from The importance of thinking clearly about quasiexperi- an understanding of basic principles and that attempts to mental studies is illustrated by a study that compared 100 move directly to application without first gaining a basic detoxified males who had previously been heavy drinkers of understanding are shortsighted. Of course, it is not neces- alcohol with 50 male nondrinkers (Acker et al., 1984). Overall, sary for a research project to be completely pure or com- those who had been heavy drinkers performed more poorly pletely applied; many research programs have elements of on various tests of perceptual, motor, and cognitive abil- both approaches. Moreover, pure research often becomes ity, and their brain scans revealed extensive brain damage. the topic of translational research: research that aims to Although this might seem like an experiment, it is not. It is a translate the findings of pure research into useful applica- quasiexperimental study: Because the participants themselves tions for humankind (see Howells, Sena, & Macleod, 2014). M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 32 22/01/2021 10:36  Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 33 One important difference between pure and applied research is that pure research is more vulnerable to the vagaries of political regulation because politicians and the What Are the Divisions of voting public have difficulty understanding why research of no immediate practical benefit should be supported. If Biopsychology? the decision were yours, would you be willing to grant mil- As you have just learned, biopsychologists conduct lions of dollars to support the study of squid motor neurons their research in a variety of fundamentally different (neurons that control muscles), learning in recently hatched ways. Biopsychologists who take the same approaches geese, the activity of single nerve cells in the visual systems to their research tend to publish their research in the of monkeys, the hormones released by the hypothalamus (a same journals, attend the same scientific meetings, and small neural structure at the base of the brain) of pigs and belong to the same professional societies. The particular sheep, or the functions of the corpus callosum (the large neu- approaches to biopsychology that have flourished and ral pathway that connects the left and right halves of the grown have gained wide recognition as separate divi- brain)? Which, if any, of these projects would you consider sions of biopsychological research. The purpose of this worthy of support? Each of these seemingly esoteric proj- module is to give you a clearer sense of biopsychology ects was supported, and each earned a Nobel Prize. and its diversity by describing six of its major divisions Table 1.1 provides a timeline of some of the Nobel Prizes (see Figure 1.4): (1) physiological psychology, (2) psy- awarded for research related to the brain and behavior. The chopharmacology, (3) neuropsychology, (4) psychophys- purpose of this table is to give you a general sense of the iology, (5) cognitive neuroscience, and (6) comparative official recognition that behavioral and brain research has psychology. For simplicity, they are presented as distinct received, not to have you memorize the list. You will learn approaches, but there is much overlap among them, and later in the chapter that, when it comes to evaluating sci- many biopsychologists regularly follow more than one ence, the Nobel Prize Committees have not been infallible. approach. Table 1.1 Nobel prizes specifically related to the nervous system or behavior. Nobel Winner(s) Date Accomplishment Ivan Pavlov 1904 Research on the physiology of digestion Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal 1906 Research on the structure of the nervous system Charles Sherrington and Edgar Adrian 1932 Discoveries about the functions of neurons Henry Dale and Otto Loewi 1936 Discoveries about the transmission of nerve impulses Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Gasser 1944 Research on the functions of single nerve fibers Walter Hess 1949 Research on the role of the brain in behavior Egas Moniz 1949 Development of the prefrontal lobotomy Georg von Békésy 1961 Research on the auditory system John Eccles, Alan Hodgkin, and Andrew Huxley 1963 Research on the ionic basis of neural transmission Ragnar Granit, Haldan Hartline, and George Wald 1967 Research on the chemistry and physiology of vision Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler, and Julius Axelrod 1970 Discoveries related to synaptic transmission Karl Von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, and Nikolaas Tinbergen 1973 Studies of animal behavior Roger Guillemin and Andrew Schally 1977 Discoveries related to hormone production by the brain Herbert Simon 1979 Research on human cognition Roger Sperry 1981 Research on separation of the cerebral hemispheres David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel 1981 Research on neurons of the visual system Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen 1986 Discovery and study of nerve growth factors Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann 1991 Research on ion channels Alfred Gilman and Martin Rodbell 1994 Discovery of G-protein–coupled receptors Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard, and Eric Kandel 2000 Discoveries related to synaptic transmission Linda Buck and Richard Axel 2004 Research on the olfactory system John O’Keefe, May-Britt Moser, and Edvard Moser 2014 Research on the brain’s system for recognizing locations Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rosbach, and Michael Young 2017 Discoveries related to the molecular mechanisms control- ling the circadian rhythm M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 33 22/01/2021 10:36  34 Chapter 1 early psychopharmacologists were simply physiological Figure 1.4 The six major divisions of biopsychology. psychologists who moved into drug research, and many of today’s biopsychologists identify closely with both approaches. However, the study of the effects of drugs on Physiological psychology brain and behavior has become so specialized that psychopharmacology is regarded as a sep- arate discipline. A substantial portion of psychopharmacological research is applied. Although drugs are sometimes used by Comparative Psychopharmacology psychopharmacologists to study the basic psychology principles of brain–behavior interaction, the purpose of many psychopharmacologi- cal experiments is to develop therapeutic drugs (see Chapter 18) or to reduce drug Biopsychology abuse (see Chapter 15). Psychopharmacolo- gists study the effects of drugs on labora- tory species—and on humans, if the ethics of the situation permits it. Cognitive Neuropsychology neuroscience Neuropsychology LO 1.9 Describe the division of biopsychology known as neuropsychology. Psychophysiology Neuropsychology is the study of the psychological effects of brain dysfunction in human patients. Because human volunteers cannot ethically be exposed to experimental treatments that endanger normal brain function, neuropsychology deals almost exclusively with case Physiological Psychology studies and quasiexperimental studies of patients with LO 1.7 Describe the division of biopsychology known brain dysfunction resulting from disease, accident, or as physiological psychology. neurosurgery. The outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres— the cerebral cortex—is most likely to be damaged by Physiological psychology is the division of biopsychology accident or surgery; this is one reason why neuropsychology that studies the neural mechanisms of behavior through the has focused on this important part of the human brain. direct manipulation and recording of the brain in controlled Neuropsychology is the most applied of the biopsycho- experiments—surgical and electrical methods are most com- logical subdisciplines; the neuropsychological assessment mon. The subjects of physiological psychology research are of human patients, even when part of a program of pure almost always laboratory animals because the focus on direct research, is always done with an eye toward benefiting them brain manipulation and controlled experiments precludes in some way. Neuropsychological tests facilitate diagnosis the use of human participants in most instances. There is and thus help the attending physician prescribe effective treat- also a tradition of pure research in physiological psychology; ments (see Benton, 1994). They can also be an important basis the emphasis is usually on research that contributes to the for patient care and counseling; Kolb and Whishaw (1990) development of theories of the neural control of behavior described such an application in the case study of Mr. R. rather than on research of immediate practical benefit. Psychopharmacology The Case of Mr. R., the Student with a Brain Injury Who Switched LO 1.8 Describe the division of biopsychology known as psychopharmacology. to Architecture Psychopharmacology is similar to physiological psychol- Mr. R. was a 21-year-old honors student at a university. One day he ogy except that it focuses on the manipulation of neural was involved in a car accident in which he struck his head against activity and behavior with drugs. In fact, many of the the dashboard. Following the accident, Mr. R’s grades began to M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 34 22/01/2021 10:36  Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 35 decline; his once exceptional academic performance was now only Most psychophysiological research focuses on under- average. He seemed to have particular trouble completing his term standing the physiology of psychological processes, such as papers. Finally, after a year of struggling academically, he went attention, emotion, and information processing, but there for a neuropsychological assessment. The findings were striking. have been some interesting clinical applications of the Mr. R. turned out to be one of roughly one-third of left-handers psychophysiological method. For example, psychophysio- whose language functions are represented in the right hemisphere logical experiments have indicated that people with schizo- of their brain, rather than in their left hemisphere. Furthermore, phrenia have difficulty smoothly tracking a moving object although Mr. R. had a superior IQ score, his verbal memory and reading speed were below average—something that is quite with their eyes (see Meyhöfer et al., 2014)—see Figure 1.5. unusual for a person who had been so strong academically. The neuropsychologists concluded that he may have suf- Journal Prompt 1.2 fered some damage to his right temporal lobe during the car What implications could the finding that people with accident, which would help explain his diminished language schizophrenia have difficulty smoothly tracking moving skills. The neuropsychologists also recommended that R. pur- objects have for the diagnosis of schizophrenia? (For a sue a field that didn’t require superior verbal memory skills. discussion of schizophrenia, see Chapter 18.) Following his exam and based on the recommendation of his neuropsychologists, Mr. R. switched majors and began studying architecture with substantial success. Cognitive Neuroscience LO 1.11 Describe the division of biopsychology known as cognitive neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience is the youngest division of biopsy- Psychophysiology chology. Cognitive neuroscientists study the neural bases of cognition, a term that generally refers to higher intellectual LO 1.10 Describe the division of biopsychology known processes such as thought, memory, attention, and complex as psychophysiology. perceptual processes (see Gutchess, 2014; Raichle, 2008). Psychophysiology is the division of biopsychology that Because of its focus on cognition, most cognitive neurosci- studies the relation between physiological activity and ence research involves human participants, and because psychological processes in humans. Because the subjects of its focus on human participants, its methods tend to be of psychophysiological research are humans, psychophysi- noninvasive, rather than involving penetration or direct ological recording procedures are typically noninvasive; manipulation of the brain. that is, the physiological activity is recorded from the sur- The major method of cognitive neuroscience is func- face of the body. The usual measure of brain activity is the tional brain imaging: recording images of the activity of the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) (see Chapter 5). Other living human brain (see Chapter 5) while a participant common psychophysiological measures are muscle ten- is engaged in a particular mental activity. For example, sion, eye movement, and several indicators of autonomic Figure 1.6 shows that the visual areas of the left and right nervous system activity (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, cerebral cortex at the back of the brain became active when pupil dilation, and electrical conductance of the skin). The the participant viewed a flashing light. autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the division of the Because the theory and methods of cognitive neurosci- nervous system that regulates the body’s inner environ- ence are so complex and pertinent to so many fields, cogni- ment (see Chapter 3). tive neuroscience research often involves interdisciplinary Figure 1.5 Visual tracking of a pendulum by a healthy control participant (top) and three participants with schizophrenia. Healthy control participant C S1 Three different participants with S2 schizophrenia S3 Based on Iacono, W. G., & Koenig, W. G. (1983). M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 35 22/01/2021 10:36  36 Chapter 1 collaboration among many researchers with different types Figure 1.6 Functional brain imaging is the major method of cognitive neuroscience. This image—taken from the top of training. Biopsychologists, cognitive psychologists, social of the head with the participant lying on her back—reveals psychologists, economists, computing and mathematics the locations of high levels of neural activity at one level of experts, and various types of neuroscientists commonly the brain as the participant viewed a flashing light. The red contribute to the field. Cognitive neuroscience research and yellow areas indicate high levels of activity in the visual sometimes involves noninvasive electrophysiological cortex at the back of the brain. (Courtesy of Dr. Todd Handy, recording, and it sometimes focuses on patients with brain Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia.) dysfunction; in these cases, the boundaries between cogni- tive neuroscience and psychophysiology and neuropsychol- ogy, respectively, are blurred. Comparative Psychology LO 1.12 Describe the division of biopsychology known as comparative psychology. Although most biopsychologists study the neural mecha- nisms of behavior, there is more to biopsychology than neu- ral mechanisms. A biopsychologist should never lose sight of the fact that the purpose of their research is to under- stand the integrated behavior of the whole animal. The last division of biopsychology that we describe here is one that focuses on the behavior of animals in their natural environ- ments. This division is comparative psychology. Comparative psychologists compare the behavior of different species in order to understand the evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of behavior. Some compara- tive psychologists study behavior in the laboratory; others engage in ethological research—the study of behavior in an animal’s natural environment. As a reminder, the purpose of this module was to demonstrate the diversity of biopsychology by describing Todd C. Handy/University of British Columbia Department of Psychology six of its major divisions; these are summarized for you in Table 1.2. You will see all six of these divisions in action in subsequent chapters. Table 1.2 The six major divisions of biopsychology with examples of how they have approached the study of memory. Division of Biopsychology Example from Memory Research Physiological psychology: study of the neural mecha- Physiological psychologists have studied the contributions of one brain nisms of behavior by manipulating the nervous systems of structure, the hippocampus, to memory by surgically removing it in rats nonhuman animals in controlled experiments and assessing their ability to perform various memory tasks. Psychopharmacology: study of the effects of drugs on the Psychopharmacologists have tried to improve the memory of Alzheim- brain and behavior er’s patients by administering drugs that alter brain chemistry. Neuropsychology: study of the psychological effects of Neuropsychologists have shown that patients with damage to the hip- brain dysfunction in human patients pocampus and surrounding structures are incapable of forming new long-term memories. Psychophysiology: study of the relation between physi- Psychophysiologists have shown that familiar faces elicit the usual ological activity and psychological processes in human vol- changes in autonomic nervous system activity even when patients with unteers by noninvasive physiological recording brain damage report that they do not recognize a face. Cognitive neuroscience: study of the neural mechanisms Cognitive neuroscientists have used brain-imaging technology to of human cognition, largely through the use of functional observe the changes that occur in various parts of the brain while brain imaging human volunteers perform memory tasks. Comparative psychology: study of the evolution, genet- Comparative psychologists have shown that species of birds that cache ics, and adaptiveness of behavior, largely through the use of their seeds tend to have larger hippocampi, confirming that the hippo- the comparative method campus is involved in memory for location. M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 36 22/01/2021 10:36  Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 37 Scan Your Brain To see if you are acquainted with the main premises of bio- 3. In a _______ design, participants are placed into different psychology and allied disciplines, fill in each of the following groups and exposed to different experimental conditions. blanks with the most appropriate terms. The correct answers 4. Studies that focus on a single participant rather than a are provided at the end of the exercise. Before proceeding, group of participants are called _______. review material related to your errors and omissions. 5. The major method of cognitive neuroscience is _______, recording images of the activity of the living human brain. 1. _______ is a branch of psychology that uses data from patients with brain damage to understand structure and 6. _______ is a branch of biopsychology that studies function of the human brain. genetic, evolutionary, and behavior differences across species. 2. Over the past few decades, researchers have ­realized that the adult brain connections are not static but (6) Evolutionary behavioral genetics. changeable in response to the individual’s genes and (3) between-subjects, (4) case studies, (5) functional brain imaging, experiences. This is known as _______. Scan Your Brain answers: (1) Neuropsychology, (2) neuroplasticity, Consider, for example, the relative strengths and How Do Biopsychologists weaknesses of neuropsychology and physiological psy- chology in the study of the psychological effects of damage Conduct Their Work? to the human cerebral cortex. In this instance, the strength of the neuropsychological approach is that it deals directly This module explains how biopsychologists typically con- with human patients; its weakness is that its focus on duct their work. First, you will learn how biopsychologists human patients precludes experiments. In contrast, the collaborate with one another, and the importance of such strength of the physiological psychology approach is that collaboration in advancing a field of research. Second, you it can use the power of experimental research on nonhu- will learn about how biopsychologists make inferences man animals; its weakness is that the relevance of research about brain function that is not directly observable. These are on laboratory animals to human brain damage is always important components of biopsychological research, and you open to question (see Couzin-Frankel, 2013; Reardon, will see in the next module what goes wrong when such col- 2016). Clearly these two approaches complement each laboration and scientific inference are thrown by the wayside. other well; together they can answer questions that neither can answer individually. Converging Operations: How Do To examine converging operations in action, let’s return Biopsychologists Work Together? to the case of Jimmie G. The neuropsychological disorder from which Jimmie suffered was first described in the late LO 1.13 Explain how converging operations has 19th century by Sergei Korsakoff, a Russian physician, and contributed to the study of Korsakoff’s subsequently became known as Korsakoff’s syndrome. The syndrome. primary symptom of Korsakoff’s syndrome is severe mem- Because each of the six biopsychological approaches to ory loss, which is made all the more heartbreaking—as you research has its own particular strengths and shortcomings have seen in Jimmie G.’s case—by the fact that its suffer- and because the mechanisms by which the brain controls ers are often otherwise quite capable. Because Korsakoff’s behavior are so complex, major biopsychological issues are syndrome commonly occurs in heavy drinkers of alcohol, rarely resolved by a single experiment or even by a series it was initially believed to be a direct consequence of the of experiments taking the same general approach. Progress toxic effects of alcohol on the brain. This conclusion proved is most likely when different approaches are focused on to be a good illustration of the inadvisability of inferring a single problem in such a way that the strengths of one causality from the results of quasiexperimental studies. approach compensate for the weaknesses of the others; this Subsequent research showed that Korsakoff’s syndrome is combined approach is called converging operations (see largely caused by the brain damage associated with thiamine Thompson, 2005). (vitamin B1) deficiency. M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 37 22/01/2021 10:36  38 Chapter 1 the nature of biopsychology by defining, illustrating, and Journal Prompt 1.3 discussing scientific inference. Korsakoff’s syndrome accounts for approximately The scientific method is a system for finding things out 10 percent of adult dementias in the United States. by careful observation, but many of the processes studied Despite its relatively high prevalence, few people have by scientists cannot be observed. For example, scientists use heard of it. Why do you think this is the case? empirical (observational) methods to study ice ages, gravity, evaporation, electricity, and nuclear fission—none of which The first support for the thiamine-deficiency interpre- can be directly observed; their effects can be observed, but the tation of Korsakoff’s syndrome came from the discovery of processes themselves cannot. Biopsychology is no different the syndrome in malnourished persons who consumed little from other sciences in this respect. One of its main goals is to or no alcohol. Additional support came from experiments in characterize, through empirical methods, the unobservable which thiamine-deficient rats were compared with otherwise processes by which the nervous system controls behavior. identical groups of control rats. The thiamine-deficient rats The empirical method that biopsychologists and other displayed memory deficits and patterns of brain damage sim- scientists use to study the unobservable is called scientific ilar to those observed in many people who had been heavy inference. Scientists carefully measure key events they can drinkers of alcohol (Mumby, Cameli, & Glenn, 1999). Such observe and then use these measures as a basis for logically people often develop Korsakoff’s syndrome because most of inferring the nature of events they cannot observe. Like a their caloric intake comes in the form of alcohol, which lacks detective carefully gathering clues from which to re-create vitamins, and because alcohol interferes with the metabolism an unwitnessed crime, a biopsychologist carefully gath- of what little thiamine they do consume. However, alcohol ers relevant measures of behavior and neural activity from has been shown to accelerate the development of brain dam- which to infer the nature of the neural processes that regu- age in thiamine-deficient rats, so it may have a direct toxic late behavior. The fact that the neural mechanisms of behav- effect on the brain as well (Ridley, Draper, & Withall, 2013). ior cannot be directly observed and must be studied through The point of this discussion of Korsakoff’s syndrome is scientific inference is what makes biopsychological research to show you that progress in biopsychology typically comes such a challenge—and, as we said before, so much fun. from converging operations—in this case, from the conver- To illustrate scientific inference, we have selected a gence of neuropsychological case studies (case studies of research project in which you can participate. By making Korsakoff patients), quasiexperiments with human partici- a few simple observations about your own visual abilities pants (comparisons of heavy drinkers with abstainers), and under different conditions, you will be able to discover the controlled experiments on laboratory animals (comparison of principle by which your brain translates the movement of thiamine-deficient and control rats). The strength of biopsy- images on your retinas into perceptions of movement (see chology lies in the diversity of its methods and approaches. Figure 1.7). One feature of the mechanism is immediately This means that, in evaluating biopsychological claims, it is obvious. Hold your hand in front of your face, and then rarely sufficient to consider the results of one study or even of move its image across your retinas by moving your eyes, one line of experiments using the same method or approach. by moving your hand, or by moving both at once. You will So what has all the research on Korsakoff’s syndrome notice that only those movements of the retinal image pro- done for Jimmie G. and others like him? Today, heavy drink- duced by the movement of your hand are translated into ers are counseled to stop drinking and are treated with large the perception of motion; movements of the retinal image doses of thiamine. The thiamine limits the development of produced by your own eye movements are not. Obviously, further brain damage and often leads to a slight improve- there must be a part of your brain that monitors the move- ment in the patient’s condition; unfortunately, the acquired ments of your retinal image and subtracts from the total brain dysfunction is mostly irreversible. those image movements produced by your own eye move- ments, leaving the remainder to be perceived as motion. Scientific Inference: How Do Now, let’s try to characterize the nature of the informa- tion about your eye movements used by your brain in its Biopsychologists Study the perception of motion. Try the following. Shut one eye, then Unobservable Workings of the Brain? rotate your other eye slightly upward by gently pressing on your lower eyelid with your fingertip. What do you see? LO 1.14 Explain scientific inference with reference You see all of the objects in your visual field moving down- to research on eye movements and the visual ward. Why? It seems that the brain mechanism responsible perception of motion. for the perception of motion does not consider eye move- Scientific inference is the fundamental method of biopsy- ment per se. It considers only those eye movements that chology and of most other sciences—it is what makes being are actively produced by neural signals from the brain to a scientist fun. This section provides further insight into the eye muscles, not those that are passively produced by M01_PINE1933_11_GE_C01.indd 38 22/01/2021 10:36  Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 39 other means (e.g., by your finger). Thus, when your eye was Figure 1.7 The perception of motion under four different conditions. moved passively, your brain assumed it had remained still and attributed the movement of your retinal image to the movement of objects in your visual field. It is possible to trick the visual system in the oppo- site way; instead of the eyes being moved when no active signals have been sent to the eye muscles, the eyes can be held stationary despite the brain’s attempts to move them. Because this experiment involves paralyzing the eye mus- cles, you cannot participate. Hammond, Merton, and Sutton 1 Eye is stationary, and object is (1956) injected a paralytic (movement-inhibiting) substance stationary; therefore, into the eye muscles of their participant—who was Merton