PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Notes PDF

PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO ◆​ It is not made up of any cells PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL and is hypothetical PSYCHOLOGY...

PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO ◆​ It is not made up of any cells PHYSIOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL and is hypothetical PSYCHOLOGY ◆​ It does not have a definite shape and structure Biopsychology – branch of psychology that ◆​ It refers to a person’s conscience analyzes how the brain, neurotransmitters, and (understanding thoughts and other aspects of our biology influence our processes) behaviors, thoughts and feelings. ➔​ BRAIN ➔​ Also known as physiological ◆​ It is a physical entity psychology, behavioral neuroscience, or ◆​ It is made up of blood vessels psychobiology. and nerve cells. Biopsychologists – examines how biological ◆​ It has a definite shape and processes interact with emotions, cognitions, and structure. other mental functions. ◆​ Brain coordinates movements, functions and feelings of the body. Relationship b/w MIND and BRAIN ➔​ Mind and brain has interdependent relationship. ➔​ It links b/w a person’s thoughts, feelings and behavior and their physical symptoms. ➔​ Biological Explanation ◆​ Dualism – there are different kinds of substances that exist Philosophers’ View on Biopsychology independently. ❖​ Aristotle – our thoughts and feelings ◆​ Monism – the belief that the arose from the heart. universe is only comprised of ❖​ Hippocrates and later Plato – brain one type of substance. was where the mind resides and that it ​ Forms of Monism served as the source of all thought and ○​ Materialism – action. everything that ❖​ Rene Descartes and Leonardo da exists is Vinci – introduced theories about how physical by the nervous systems operated; they nature. established the idea that external ○​ Mentalism – stimulation could lead to muscle only mind truly responses. (reflexes) exists. ○​ Identity Difference b/w MIND and BRAIN Position – ➔​ MIND mental and ◆​ It is an abstract entity. brain processes are the same but PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 described in learning, memory, attention, and different terms. complex perceptual processes. Biological Explanations of Behavior ➔​ Comparative Psychology ➔​ Physiological Explanation ◆​ Study of evolutionary and ◆​ relates behavior to the activity genetic factors in behavior; of the brain and other organs. features comparative and ➔​ Ontogenetic Explanation functional approaches; features ◆​ describes how a structure or lab research as well as studies of behavior develops (influences of animals in their natural genes, nutrition, experiences, environment (ethology) and their interactions.) Tests Used in Biopsychology ➔​ Evolutionary Explanation ➔​ Functional Magnetic Resonance ◆​ call attention to behavioral Imaging (fMRI) similarities among related ◆​ involves scanning the brain to species. measure blood flow by ➔​ Functional Explanation examining blood oxygenation ◆​ describes why a structure or and flow. behavior evolved as it did. ➔​ Electroencephalogram (EEG) ◆​ is used to measure electrical The 6 Divisions of Biopsychology currents on the surface of the ➔​ Physiological Psychology brain. It can be used to monitor ◆​ focuses on the direct activity levels and detect manipulation of the nervous changes in consciousness. system in controlled laboratory The Use of Animals in Research settings (lesions, electrical ➔​ The underlying mechanisms of behavior stimulation, invasive recording) are similar across species and sometimes ➔​ Psychopharmacology easier to study in a nonhuman species. ◆​ focuses on the drug effects on ➔​ We are interested in animals for their behavior and how these changes own sake. are mediated by changes in ➔​ What we learn about animal’s sheds neural activity. light on human evolution. ➔​ Neuropsychology ➔​ Legal or ethical restrictions prevent ◆​ focuses on the behavioral certain kinds of research on humans. deficits produced in humans by Opposition to Animal Research varies: brain damage, typically cortical ➔​ Minimalists damage. ◆​ Minimalists support some ➔​ Psychophysiology animal research based on its ◆​ focuses on the relation between value, the animal's distress, and physiology and behavior by species, advocating for strict recording the physiological regulations. Researchers agree responses of human subjects. but differ on limits. ➔​ Cognitive Neuroscience ◆​ three R’s": reduction – ◆​ focuses on the neural bases of reducing animal use, cognitive processes like replacement – replacing PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 animals when possible, and ➔​ Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain refinement – refining methods and spinal cord to minimize pain. ➔​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – ➔​ Abolitionists nerves that connect the CNS to the rest ◆​ Abolitionists reject all animal of the body use, believing animals have Key Figures in Neuroscience equal rights to humans. They ➔​ Santiago Ramón y Cajal: A Spanish view killing animals as murder, neuroscientist who used Camillo Golgi's keeping them in cages as silver staining technique to study slavery, and any research neurons and showed that nerve cells are without consent as inherently distinct entities. wrong. ➔​ Golgi's Contribution: Developed the Polarization and Decision-Making in silver salt staining technique used to Neuroscience Research visualize neuron structure. ➔​ Extreme polarization in neuroscience Neuron Anatomy and Functions hinders nuanced discussions. While ➔​ Neurons: Specialized cells in the some researchers voice concerns about nervous system that transmit electrical animal use, admitting uncertainties can signals. be difficult. Open-minded debate is ➔​ Soma (Cell Body): Contains the often stifled, and researchers must nucleus, mitochondria, and is the site of sometimes balance the risks of causing metabolic activity. distress under controlled conditions. ➔​ Dendrites: Branching structures that receive signals. ➔​ Axon: A long fiber transmitting signals to other neurons, muscles, or organs. TOPIC 2: THE CELLS OF THE Often covered by a myelin sheath for faster signal transmission. NERVOUS SYSTEM: NEURONS AND ➔​ Synapse: The gap between neurons GLIA where signal transmission occurs. ➔​ Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin Nervous System – is the body’s fast sheath that facilitate rapid signal communication system. conduction. ​ It allows the brain to send and receive Types of Neurons signals from all parts of the body, ➔​ Sensory Neurons: Detect stimuli (light, controlling everything from simple sound, touch). reflexes to complex movements. ➔​ Motor Neurons: Send signals from the Neurons and Glia (2 kinds of cells of NS) spinal cord to muscles. ➔​ Neurons – receive information and ➔​ Interneurons: Connect sensory and transmit it to other cells; adult human motor neurons and process signals. brain contains approx. 86B. Afferent vs. Efferent Axons ➔​ Glia – refers to the neural lineage cells ➔​ Afferent Axons: Bring information into in the nervous system that are not a structure (like "admit"). neurons. ➔​ Efferent Axons: Carry information 2 Main Parts of NS away (like "exit"). PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 Glial Cells ❖​ Function: Support neurons by maintaining their environment, cleaning TOPIC 3: NERVE IMPULSES: THE waste, and assisting in repair. ELECTRICAL LANGUAGE OF THE ❖​ Types of Glial Cells: NERVOUS SYSTEM ​ Astrocytes: Shield neurons, synchronize activity, and maintain blood-brain barrier. What is a Nerve Impulse? ​ Oligodendrocytes (CNS): ★​ Electrical Signal: Rapid electrical Produce myelin sheath in the signal traveling along a neuron’s central nervous system. axon. ​ Schwann Cells (PNS): ★​ Communication: Enables neurons Myelinate axons in the to interact with each other and target peripheral nervous system. cells. ​ Microglia: Act as the brain's ★​ Information Transmission: Carries immune system by removing internal and external stimuli toxins and dead cells. information throughout the body. ​ Ependymal Cells: Line brain ventricles and spinal canal, Types of Nerve Impulses produce cerebrospinal fluid. ​ Radial Glia: Assist in the ★​ Action Potentials: Fast, short-lived development of neurons and electrical signals moving along axons. neural repair. ★​ Graded Potentials: Localized changes The Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) in membrane potential, varying in ★​ Purpose: Protects the brain by strength and duration. preventing harmful substances from entering. Resting Potential of Neurons ★​ Formed by endothelial cells lining brain capillaries. ★​ Polarized State: Neurons maintain a ★​ Mechanisms: charge difference across their membrane ○​ Blocks viruses, bacteria, and (negative inside, positive outside). toxins. ★​ Sodium-Potassium Pump: Actively ○​ Active transport systems bring transports Na⁺ out and K⁺ in, in essential nutrients like maintaining resting potential. glucose and amino acids. ★​ Ion Channels: Mostly closed in resting Nourishment of Neurons state, preventing free ion movement. ★​ Glucose: The primary energy source for Why Resting Potential? neurons. ★​ Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): Necessary for ★​ Prepares neurons to respond rapidly. glucose metabolism. ★​ Electrical and concentration gradients ○​ Deficiency can cause drive Na⁺ into the cell when stimulated. Korsakoff's Syndrome, leading to severe memory impairment. Depolarization & Action Potential PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 ★​ Stimulus: Changes membrane ★​ Drugs & Toxins: Can enhance or block permeability. nerve transmission. ★​ Sodium Influx: Na⁺ channels open, allowing Na⁺ in, making the inside more Clinical Implications & Nerve Disorders positive. ★​ Threshold Potential: If reached, an ★​ Neurological Disorders: Multiple action potential is triggered. sclerosis, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s ★​ Repolarization: K⁺ exits the neuron, result from impaired nerve impulses. restoring the negative charge inside. ★​ Treatment: Medications, therapies, and ★​ Refractory Period: Ensures impulses lifestyle changes help manage move in one direction. symptoms.​ ★​ All-or-None Law: Once the threshold is Research: Ongoing studies aim to met, action potential occurs with the develop better treatments and improve same strength regardless of stimulus patient outcomes. intensity. Propagation of Nerve Impulses TOPIC 4: THE CONCEPT OF SYNAPSES ★​ Depolarization Wave: Action potential moves along the axon by triggering the next section. ★​ Potassium Exit: Restores resting What is a Synapse? potential behind the impulse. ★​ A specialized junction where Myelination & Saltatory Conduction communication occurs between neurons. ★​ Involves a presynaptic neuron (sending) ★​ Myelin Sheath: Fatty covering on some and a postsynaptic neuron (receiving). axons, increasing speed. ★​ Enables complex information ★​ Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in myelin processing. where depolarization occurs. ★​ Saltatory Conduction: Impulse jumps between nodes, making transmission Historical Background faster. ★​ Charles Scott Sherrington: Coined the Factors Affecting Nerve Impulse Speed term "synapse" in 1906; won the 1932 Nobel Prize for work on neural ★​ Axon Diameter: Larger axons conduct functions. impulses faster. ★​ Ramón y Cajal: Demonstrated the ★​ Myelination: Increases conduction anatomical structure of neurons. speed. ★​ Temperature: Higher temperature Reflexes & Reflex Arc (Sherrington's Work) speeds up transmission. ★​ pH Levels: Extreme pH disrupts ion ★​ Reflexes: Automatic muscular responses channel function. to stimuli. PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 ★​ Reflex Arc: Circuit from sensory ★​ Chemical Synapses: Use neuron to muscle response. neurotransmitters; most common. ★​ Key observations: ★​ Electrical Synapses: Direct ion flow ○​ Reflexes are slower than axonal through gap junctions; faster but less conduction. flexible. ○​ Weak stimuli presented together can produce stronger reflexes Chemical Transmission (summation). ○​ Excited muscles cause ★​ Action potential triggers Ca²⁺ influx, inhibition of opposing muscles. causing neurotransmitter release. ★​ Neurotransmitters bind receptors, Properties of Synapses opening ion channels (depolarization or hyperpolarization). ★​ Speed of Reflexes: Slower than action ★​ Reuptake, degradation, or diffusion potentials due to synaptic delay. terminates the signal. ★​ Summation: ○​ Temporal Summation: Rapidly Excitatory & Inhibitory Synapses repeated stimuli at one synapse build up effect. ★​ Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential ○​ Spatial Summation: Stimuli (EPSP): Depolarization makes firing from multiple synapses combine more likely. effects. ★​ Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential ★​ Excitation & Inhibition: Some (IPSP): Hyperpolarization makes firing synapses increase activity (EPSP), less likely. others decrease it (IPSP). Chemical Transmission at Synapses John Eccles' Contribution ​ Thomas Renton Elliott (1905): ★​ Showed synaptic transmission is Proposed that nerve impulses are chemical rather than electrical. transmitted chemically, suggesting that ★​ Proved excitatory and inhibitory the sympathetic nervous system releases processes using microelectrodes. adrenaline or similar chemicals. ​ Otto Loewi (1921): Proved chemical transmission by stimulating a frog’s Structure of a Synapse heart and identifying acetylcholine ★​ Presynaptic Terminal: Contains (Vagusstoff) as a neurotransmitter. neurotransmitters in vesicles. ★​ Synaptic Cleft: The gap Sequence of Chemical Events at a Synapse neurotransmitters diffuse across. 1.​ Synthesis: Neuron produces ★​ Postsynaptic Receptors: Bind neurotransmitters—small neurotransmitters and trigger signals. neurotransmitters in axon terminals and neuropeptides in the cell body. Types of Synapses PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 2.​ Release: Action potential triggers ○​ GABA: Main inhibitory calcium entry, causing neurotransmitter neurotransmitter, regulates release into the synaptic cleft. anxiety and sleep. 3.​ Binding: Neurotransmitters diffuse ○​ Glycine: Inhibitory, mainly in across the cleft and attach to the spinal cord. postsynaptic receptors, altering neuron ○​ Aspartate: Excitatory, involved activity. in spinal cord function. 4.​ Separation: Neurotransmitters detach from receptors. Monoamines 5.​ Recycling or Removal: Neurotransmitters are either reabsorbed ★​ Serotonin: Mood, sleep, appetite, by the presynaptic neuron or diffuse anxiety regulation. away. ★​ Dopamine: Pleasure, motivation, focus. 6.​ Feedback Regulation: Postsynaptic ★​ Norepinephrine: Alertness, attention, cells send reverse messages to regulate fight-or-flight. neurotransmitter release. ★​ Epinephrine: Similar to norepinephrine, stress response. Neurotransmitters Other Neurotransmitters – A chemical messenger that carries, ★​ Acetylcholine (ACh): Muscle boosts, and balances signals between neurons movement, learning, memory. and target cells throughout the body. ★​ Endorphins: Pain relief, pleasure. ★​ Substance P: Pain signaling. Types of Neurotransmitters ★​ Neuropeptide Y: Appetite regulation, ​ Excitatory stress. ○​ Glutamate ★​ Nitric Oxide (NO): Vasodilation, neural ○​ Aspartate communication. ○​ Nitric Oxide ​ Inhibitory STORAGE OF TRANSMITTERS ○​ Glycine ○​ GABA ★​ NEUROTRANSMITTERS – ○​ Serotonin Synthesized in the presynaptic terminal, ○​ Dopamine near the point of release. ​ Both ★​ VESICLES STORAGE OF ○​ Acetylcholine TRANSMITTERS – The presynaptic ○​ Norepinephrine terminal stores high concentrations of neurotransmitter molecules in vesicles, tiny nearly spherical packets. ★​ Amino Acids ★​ PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL – The ○​ Glutamate: Main excitatory presynaptic terminal also maintains neurotransmitter, crucial for much neurotransmitter outside the learning/memory. vesicles. PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 ★​ MAO (Monoamine Oxidase) – The Synaptic Plasticity & Learning first anti-depressant drugs that psychiatrist discovered ★​ Synaptic Strengthening: Repeated stimulation leads to increased Monoamines vs. Neuropeptides neurotransmitter release and receptor sensitivity. ★​ Monoamines (dopamine, serotonin) ★​ Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A function in mood regulation and arousal; long-lasting enhancement of synaptic Neuropeptides (endorphins, substance transmission, crucial for memory P) involved in slower signaling and formation. modulating pain. ★​ Learning and Memory: Synaptic plasticity underlies the ability to learn Synaptic Integration & Information and retain information Processing Neurological Disorders & Synaptic ★​ Neurons integrate excitatory & Dysfunction inhibitory inputs. ★​ Summation determines action potential ★​ Alzheimer’s: Synapse loss and firing. neurotransmitter imbalances. ★​ Parkinson’s: Dopamine deficiency Hormones vs. Neurotransmitters affecting motor control. ★​ Schizophrenia: Dysfunctional synaptic ★​ Neurotransmitters: Fast, localized communication. communication. ★​ Hormones: Slow, widespread effects Synapse Formation and Development via the bloodstream. ○​ TYPES OF HORMONES: ★​ Early Development: Synapse formation ○​ Protein Hormones – longer begins during fetal development and polypeptides continues throughout childhood. ○​ Peptide Hormones – short ★​ Experience-Dependent Plasticity: chains of amino acids Synaptic connections are constantly refined by experiences, shaping our learning and behavior. ★​ Synaptic Pruning: Unused or weak synapses are eliminated, enhancing efficiency and selectivity PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 TOPIC 5: STRUCTURE OF THE The Spinal Cord VERTEBRATE NERVOUS SYSTEM ★​ Part of the CNS, located within the spinal column. ★​ Communicates with all sense organs and Understanding the Vertebrate Nervous muscles (except the head). System ★​ Each segment contains sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) nerves. ★​ The brain and spinal cord are the central ★​ Damage results in loss of sensation and components. motor control below the injury. ★​ Coordinate activities and transmit vital signals throughout the body. The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Terminology to Describe the Nervous System ★​ Controls involuntary functions (heart, intestines, glands). ★​ Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain ★​ Two divisions: and spinal cord. ○​ Sympathetic Nervous System ★​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): ("Fight or Flight") → Increases Connects CNS to the body. heart rate, breathing, and ○​ Somatic Nervous System: decreases digestion. Controls voluntary movements. ○​ Parasympathetic Nervous ○​ Autonomic Nervous System: System ("Rest & Digest") → Regulates involuntary functions. Slows heart rate, increases digestion, and promotes relaxation. Three Major Divisions of the Brain Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) – Basic Survival Functions ★​ Medulla: Regulates breathing, heart rate, digestion, and reflexes. ★​ Pons: Connects brain hemispheres; controls movement coordination. ★​ Cerebellum: Coordinates movement, balance, and learning. Midbrain (Mesencephalon) – Processing & Movement ★​ Colliculi: Process auditory & visual information. ★​ Tegmentum: Controls movement and alertness. PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 ★​ Cerebral Peduncles: Connects different ★​ Needle inserted between L3-L4 brain areas. vertebrae to measure pressure and collect fluid. Forebrain (Prosencephalon) – Higher Functioning & Cognition Cerebral Cortex (Parts & Function) ★​ Cerebral Cortex: Outer brain layer ★​ Wrinkled outer layer of the brain, responsible for thinking, learning, and divided into two hemispheres. memory. ★​ Each hemisphere has four lobes: ★​ Divided into Four Lobes: ○​ Frontal Lobe: Planning, ○​ Frontal Lobe: Voluntary decision-making, movement. movement, reasoning, impulse ○​ Parietal Lobe: Sensory control. processing, spatial awareness. ○​ Parietal Lobe: Touch ○​ Temporal Lobe: Auditory perception, spatial awareness. processing, language ○​ Temporal Lobe: Auditory comprehension. processing, memory. ​ Kluver-Bucy ○​ Occipital Lobe: Visual syndrome (KBS) is a processing. rare neuropsychiatric ★​ Thalamus: Relays sensory information. disorder due to lesions. ★​ Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, ​ Wernicke’s area was temperature, hormones. discovered to be ★​ Amygdala: Processes emotions, involved in language especially fear. comprehensive based ★​ Hippocampus: Crucial for memory on speech tones and formation. sounds, linking them to ★​ Basal Ganglia: Controls movement & previously learned procedural learning. sounds. ○​ Occipital Lobe: Visual The Ventricles perception. ★​ Corpus Callosum: Connects the two ★​ Four fluid-filled cavities within the hemispheres. brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Prefrontal Lobotomy ★​ CSF functions: Protects, nourishes, and removes waste from the brain. ★​ Surgical procedure that damaged the ★​ Hydrocephalus: CSF buildup causing prefrontal cortex to treat mental increased brain pressure. disorders. ★​ Effects: Loss of social inhibitions, Lumbar Puncture (Spinal Tap) impulsivity, personality changes. ★​ Now obsolete due to ethical concerns ★​ Procedure to collect CSF for and ineffective outcomes. diagnosing disease or injury. PSYC 103: Physiological and Biological Psychology Bachelor of Science in Psychology - 1 Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex ★​ Higher cognitive functions: Decision-making, planning, impulse control. ★​ Damage results in poor judgment, impulsivity, and memory issues. Brodmann Areas ★​ System of brain mapping based on cellular structure and function. ★​ 52 distinct areas, each associated with different tasks (e.g., vision, speech, movement).