Proteins and Carbohydrates: Biology Notes PDF

Okay, here is the conversion of the document into a structured markdown format. ### Proteins (Amino acids and their polymers) Pg 71-78 #### Amino Acids * Consist of a carboxyl group $(R-C-OH)$ * amino group $(H_2N-R)$, a hydrogen $(H)$, * side chain $(R)$ ##### Varying characteristics depen...

Okay, here is the conversion of the document into a structured markdown format. ### Proteins (Amino acids and their polymers) Pg 71-78 #### Amino Acids * Consist of a carboxyl group $(R-C-OH)$ * amino group $(H_2N-R)$, a hydrogen $(H)$, * side chain $(R)$ ##### Varying characteristics depending on R group: * Nonpolar hydrophobic * Polar hydrophilic * Acidic (negatively charged) * Basic (positively charged) hydrophilic #### Bonding of amino acids 1. Carboxyl end placed next * to amino end of another 2. Enzyme causes dehydration * reaction peptide bond ##### Polypeptide-chains of * amino acids bonded with peptide bonds * has specific sequence of amino acids --- ### Shape of proteins determined by: * Genetic material * Environmental factors * $(pH, temperature, concentration)$ if different the protein becomes inactive or denaturated ### Functions * Act as support (structural protein) * Storage of amino acids (storage protein) * Transporting various substances (transport protein) * Coordination of activities (hormonal protein) * Responding to stimuli (receptor protein) * Movement (contractile protein) * Protection against intruders (defensive protein) * Speeds up chemical reaction (enzymatic protein) --- ### Proteins * Polypeptides ≠ proteins * Chains of polypeptides forming unique 3D structures * The structure of a protein determines its function ### 4 levels of Protein structure 1. Primary Structure: * refers to the sequence of amino acids * determined from DNA 2. Secondary Structure: * Coils and folds of backbone formed through repeated hydrogen bonds. * α helix–coil formed from H-bond every 4 amino acids. * β pleated sheet–parallel polypeptides from H-bonds 3. Tertiary structure: * Various interactions between side chains (R groups) * Hydrophobic interactions * nonpolar side chains near the interior * H-bonds, Ionic bonds. * Disulfide bridges. * bonds formed between sulfhydryl groups $(-SH)$ * Stronger overall 4. Quaternary structure: * Multiple polypeptide chains bonded together --- ## Biochemistry ### Carbohydrates - Pg 64-68 * Carbohydrates are simple sugars and their polymers. | Mono-one Sacchar-sugar | Monosaccharides | | :----------------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | | | Molecular formula multiples of $(CH_2O)$ | | | Consists of a carbonyl group $(CC=O)$ and hydroxyl groups $(-OH)$. | | | Can be classified by: | | | location of carbonyl group (aldose, ketose) | | | Number of carbon atoms (triose, pentose, hexose) | | | placement of asymmetric carbons | | Used to create energy (cellular respiration) | Hexose (6 carbons) | | Required in the production of amino acids | Aldose (aldehyde sugar) | | and fatty acids | Variation on asymmetric carbon | | Examples: Glucose, Galactose, and Fructose | | | **Di-two result of dehydration reaction between" monosaccharides** | **Examples: Sucrose, lactose, maltose** | **Dehydration Synthesis (1-4 glycosidic linkage) of maltose** | **Example chemical reaction of CH2OH** --- ### $\alpha$ Glucose ### $\beta$ Glucose #### Polysaccharides (Polymers) Hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides chained together Two main types: #### Storage polysaccharides * Joined monomers to later be broken down for energy. * 1-4 linkages * Helical in shape (due to bond angle * Ex: Starch (in plants),Glycogen (in animals) #### Structural polysaccharides * Provide structure and protection. * Linear due to $\beta$ glucose monomers. * 1-4 linkages * Ex: Cellulose (in plants),Chitin (in arthropods and fungi)