BIOLOGY-REVIEWER-COMPLETE.pdf

SCIENCE ⚫ Evolution: changes in a population A process used to solve problems and understand over time. natural events Involves the scientific method BIOLOGY i...

SCIENCE ⚫ Evolution: changes in a population A process used to solve problems and understand over time. natural events Involves the scientific method BIOLOGY is the branch of science that study living things Greek word : “Bios” – Life; “Logos” - study ⚫ Metabolism CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE – Organism’s gain and store energy in the ⚫ Unique structural organization chemical bonds in the nutrients they take in. – Organisms are made of cells. – Two or more cells forms a tissue – Tissue forms an organ to organ system to organism to community to ecosystem to community. Note: each living things (plant and animals) varies in each organizational structure. GENERALIZATIONS IN BIOLOGY: There is UNITY and DIVERSITY in the living world. ⚫ Organisms GROW AND DEVELOP - There is unity among organisms because all organisms – Living things grow from within by possess the characteristics of life most especially they mitosis/cell division while non-living things are composed of a structural organization from the increase in size by accumulation of smallest particle to the biggest one, however diversity substances. among living individuals occurs because even though we possessed all characteristics of life, they all vary from individual, example all are composed of cells (Unity) but plant cells are different from animal cells (Diversity). ⚫ Sensitivity / Irritability – Organisms react to changes in their THE SCOPE OF BIOLOGY environment (a stimulus). Biology is the study of living things ⚫ Irritability: the ability to recognize that Its scope has two major dimensions: something in its surroundings has 1. Life is structured on a size scale ranging from the changed and respond to it quickly. molecular to the global. (Biological Organization) ⚫ Example: venus fly-trap; makahiya ⚫ Reproduction – The process where organisms passed to their offspring the hereditary molecules they possess. – Sexual - two sex cells required (sperm and egg) Asexual - only one parent cell is needed Levels of Biological Organization ⚫ Biosphere—the worldwide ecosystem. ⚫ Ecosystem—communities that interact with one another in a particular place. ⚫ Coordination, Regulation and Homeostasis ⚫ Communities—populations of different organisms – All organisms have regulatory mechanisms interacting with each other in a particular place. that coordinate the functions of the various ⚫ Population—a group of individual organisms in a parts of the organisms. particular place. – Homeostasis – a relatively stable internal ⚫ Organism—an independent living unit. environment (within a certain range) ⚫ Organ system—many organs that perform a particular function. ⚫ Organ—many tissues that perform a particular function. ⚫ Tissue—many cells that perform a particular function. ⚫ Cell—simplest unit that shows characteristics of life. ⚫ Molecules—specific arrangements of atoms. ⚫ Atoms—the fundamental units of matter. ⚫ Adaptability, change and evolution – To increase the likelihood of an organism’s survival Organisms react to changes in their environment. ⚫ Individual adaptation: a longer term response to an environmental change.  2. Life’s enormous diversity on Earth. o He pioneered the comparative approach, ⚫ Life exist in various form, shapes and characteristics. which is using other animals to know the ⚫ Three Domains of Life function and organization of a particular anatomical part of the body. - & Leonardo da Vinci o studied in details the anatomy of human individual. - Zacharias Jansen o Associated with the invention of the first microscope. - Robert Hooke o Coined the term cell o Examined cells in cork cells - Anthon Von Leeuwenhoek o “animalicules” o Examined pond water under the microscope where he observed tiny animal like protozoans. - Carolus Linnaeus o a Father of Taxonomy o Developed binomial nomenclature to classify and organize plants and animals - Louis Pasteur o a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization - Gregor Mendel o Father of Genetics o Developed the principles of heredity by studying the variation and heredity of seven pairs of inherited characteristics in pea plants - Watson and Crick o DNA Model - Matthias Schleiden o Plants are composed of cells - Theodor Schwann o Animals are composed of cells - Rudolf Virchow o observed cell reproduction and division; HISTORY OF BIOLOGY “omni cellula e cellula” (cells come from - The study of biology started in the ancient Greece in the cells) year 2500BC. - Philosophers (lover of knowledge) started the study of The work of Schleiden, Schwann and Virchow contributed to Biology by continually: the formulation of the modern Cell Theory. - Socrates – father of Philosophy CELL THEORY o Encouraged his students to examine their The cell is the basic unit structure of living things. All beliefs living things are composed of one or more cells. - Plato – Founder the academy of Athens The cell is the basic unit function of all living o He was Plato’s student and Aristotle’s organisms. teacher. All cells come from pre-existing cells by the process - Aristotle – Founder the Lyceum of Athens (First school of cell division. of Medicine and Bachelor of Laws) o He built a greenhouse in his school where he THEORIES OF LIFE hired Theophrastus as his caretaker. 1. Divine Creation – super natural entity created life on - Theophrastus – Father of Botany earth o Wrote the book “The Enquiry into Plants”. 2. Spontaneous Generation – life came from non- This book is arranged into a system whereby living things plants are classified according to their 3. Extra-terrestrial Origin - life originated from other modes of generation, their localities, their planet sizes, and according to their practical uses 4. Physico-Chemical Theory – physical and chemical such as foods, juices, herbs, etc reaction occurs that created life (Bigbang Theory) - Pliny – describe plants 5. Marine Theory – Life originated in Marine habitat o Wrote the book “Naturalis Historie” Note: prokaryotes are the first life to emerge on earth - Dioscorides - Materia Medica o In his book, he included his writing on the * medicinal benefits of some plants. - Hippocrates - Father of Medicine The Significance of Biology in our Lives o Believed that human individuals got sick not ⚫ Biology has significantly contributed to our high because they are punished by Gods and standard of living. Goddesses but because there is an ⚫ For example: underlying cause that includes poor nutrition – Advanced food production and proper hygiene. – Significant progress in health - Galen – Advances in disease control o collated the existing knowledge of Medicine – Advances in plant and animal breeding and Human Body – Advances in biotechnology - Andreas Vesalius – Progress in genome studies o Father of Modern Anatomy o Made the first studies on human anatomy by dissecting corpses “De Humani Corporis Fabrica”. BIOMOLECULES 1. CARBOHYDRATES → Provide much of the energy that cells Pre-test require. Water-soluble molecules. Which of the following is not considered to be a. MONOSACCHARIDE – simplest an emergent property of water? carbohydrate. Molecular formula CH2O A. Cohesion in 1:2:1 ratio. Examples: Glucose, B. Moderation of temperature Fructose, Galactose. C. Transpiration b. DISACCHARIDE – formed when two D. Insulation of bodies of water by floating ice monosaccharides are joined together by a GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE. A covalent bond is formed as the result of? i. Sucrose = glucose + fructose A. Transferring electrons ii. Lactose = galactose + glucose B. Sharing an electron pair iii. Maltose = glucose + glucose C. Transferring protons D. Sharing a proton pair c. OLIGOSACCHARIDE – 3-10 simple sugars are linked together. Act as A solution with a high concentration of prebiotics, food for good bacteria in hydrogen ions is called an acid. gut. i. Raffinose = Galactose + glucose + An atom with a net positive charge must have fructose more protons than electrons. ii. Stachyose = Glucose + fructose + 2 galactose DNA and RNA are examples of nucleic acids. iii. Galactooligosaccharide = 4 glucose + 5 galactose The monomer of proteins are amino acids. d. POLYSACCHARIDE – consist of long Lipids is the macromolecule that stores chains of carbohydrate molecules. energy, insulates us, and makes up the cell Examples: starches, glycogen, membrane. cellulose, and chitin. Macromolecule used for energy that shows a 2. LIPIDS – water-insoluble energy-rich 1:2:1 ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen storage molecules. is carbohydrates. a. FATS – made up of fatty acids and glycerol. Supplies energy for cellular Thymine is found in DNA but not in RNA. activities. i. SATURATED FAT – saturated with How many elements are essential to life? 25 hydrogen. SINGLE BONDS. ii. UNSATURATED FAT – DOUBLE/TRIPLE C, O, H, N, make up 96% of human body. BONDS iii. TRANS FAT – small amounts. Increases TRACE ELEMENTS – are required only in Low- Density Lipoproteins (LDL) or bad very small amounts, but one cannot live cholesterol. without them. iv. WAX – water-repellent lipid with long fatty- acid tails. DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS – joining v. PHOSPHOLIPIDS – plasma membrane monomers together and removing a water (hydrophobic and hydrophilic) molecule. vi. STEROID – consists of carbon atoms in four rings (Cholesterol). Component of HYDROLYSIS – reversing the process and plasma membrane in phospholipid bilayer. adding a water molecule. 3. PROTEINS – macromolecules that BENEDICT’S TEST – test to determine the comprise one or more long chains of amino presence of reducing sugars. acid residues. Yellow – Brick-red (Positive Color) POLYPEPTIDE – linear chain of amino acid residues. BENEDICT’S REAGENT – filled with cuprous PEPTIDE BOND – links the amino acids oxide that reacts with the reducing sugars. together. IODINE TEST – test to determine the a. ENZYMATIC PROTEINS – selective presence of starch and polysaccharides. acceleration of chemical reactions. b. DEFENSIVE PROTEINS – function for Black/Blue (Positive Color) protection against disease. c. CONTRACTILE AND MOTOR PROTEINS POTASSIUM (IKI)/LUGOL’S SOLUTION – – functions for movement. reacts with the starch d. HORMONAL PROTEINS – functions for coordination of an organism’s activities. BIURET TEST – test to determine the e. TRANSPORT PROTEINS – transport of presence of proteins. substances within the body. f. RECEPTOR PROTEINS – functions of cell Purple (Positive Color) to chemical stimuli. g. STRUCTURAL PROTEINS – functions for OVALBUMIN – protein found in eggs. support. h. STORAGE PROTEINS – storage of amino acids. 4. NUCLEIC ACIDS - carry the instructions that control a cell's activities by encoding the amino acid sequences of proteins in its building blocks. a. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) → genetic blueprint of a living organism in which all information is stored and from which all information can be passed on. Double helix. → Single sugar is called DEOXYRIBOSE, which contains one less hydroxyl group than RNA’s ribose. → ADENINE-THYMINE → CYTOSINE-GUANINE b. RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) → Converts the genetic information contained within DNA to a format used to build proteins, and then moves it to ribosomal protein factories.One strand. → ADENINE-URACIL → CYTOSINE-GUANINE THE CELL PLASMA MEMBRANE – borders the contents of the prokaryotic cell inside. CELL THEORY Selective in allowing what substance goes in and out of the cell. ZACHARIAS JANSEN – invented the microscope (1590). CAPSULE – protects the cell. ROBERT HOOKE – discovered cell (1665) FLAGELLUM – long threadlike structure when he examined a thin cutting of a cork made from protein fibers that projects from under the microscope and saw many small the surface of the cell. Acts like a propeller. structures that resembled the chambers of a monastery calling it cellulae (chamber). PILI – short flagellum that helps the prokaryotic cells to attach to substrates. ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK – observed the first living cells in his perfected EUKARYOTIC CELLS microscope (1674). “animalicules”. → Have a true nucleus and mebrane- MATHIAS SCHLEIDEN – “plants are bound organelles. composed of cells” (1838) → Animal cells: Centrioles, Cilia, Pili, Flagellum (in some cells) THEODORE SCHWANN – “Animals are → Plant cells: Chloroplast, Cell wall composed of cells” (1839) A. ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM RUDOLF VIRCHOW – all cells arise by cell division of pre-existing cells “omni cellula e NUCLEUS – cells command center. Where cellula” (1858). DNA is found. ROBERT REMAK – claimed that Virchow’s 1. NUCLEOLUS – site of ribosome idea was originally his. production. CELL THEORY: 2. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE – separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell 1. All organisms are composed of organelle. one/more 3. NUCLEAR PORE – regulates the 2. Cells are the basic unit function of life. passage of materials in and out of the 3. All cells arise by cell-division of a cell. previously existing cell. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM – extensive PROKARYOTIC CELLS network of membranes extending through the cytoplasm. → DO NOT HAVE A NUCLEUS. 1. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC → “Pro” meaning before and “Karyon” RETICULUM (RER) – studded with meaning nucleus, referring to the ribosomes on its outer surface. absence of nucleus among cells. Functions to manufacture proteins. NUCLEOID – where DNA is stored. 2. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER) – has no RIBOSOMES – found scattered throughout ribosomes embedded on its outer the cytoplasm. Sites where proteins are surface. Functions for the synthesis of made. carbohydrate and lipids. Produces CYTOPLASM – site of chemical reaction, cholesterol and phospholipids contains water, protein, starch, minerals, and membrane and responsible for repair other substances. of membranes. Facilitates conversion of stored glycogen to glucose. Detoxify CELL WALL – gives strength and shape to the body from metabolic wastes and the cell. drugs. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: CENTRIOLES – barrel-shape organelles found in animal cells and some protist. They 1. mRNA move from the nucleus to occur in pairs and has a role in helping the ribosomes on the surface of rough assembly and production of microtubules that endoplasmic reticulum. move chromosomes during cell division. 2. The ribosomes build the peptide chain. Involved in the formation of cilia and flagella. 3. The chain is pushed in the cisternae space of the RER. FLAGELLA – locomotion, fine, long, 4. When the proteins are complete, they threadlike organelles that resembles a whip. are collected in a vesicle and the RER CILIA – locomotion, short, numerous pinches off a vesicle. The proteins are extensions that resembles a fringe. used in the cell or sent out the cell. C. ENERGY CENTERS VESICLE – small membrane bubble that can move to the cell membrane or the Golgi MITOCHONDRIA – organelles that use a apparatus. process called CELLULAR RESPIRATION to extract needed energy from food. GOLGI APPARATUS/GOLGI BODY – Powerhouse of the cell. consists of a series of flat, membrane-bound sacs arranged parallel to each other. 1. OUTER MEMBRANE – outer of the Functions to sort, collect, and package mitochondria and includes proteins materials manufactures in the cell into called PORINS which form channels vesicles, which moves toward the cell that allow proteins to cross. membrane. 2. INNER MEMBRANE – holds several proteins, impermeable due to absence B. PROTECTION, SUPPORT, AND of porins. Can only cross in special MOVEMENT membrane transporters. Where most PLASMA MEMBRANE – semipermeable ATP is created. membrane surrounding the cell. Controls the 3. INTERMEMBRANE SPACE – area substances that goes in and out of the cell. between inner and outer membranes. Selective, has hydrophobic and hydrophilic 4. CRISTAE – folds of the inner lipid bilayer. membrane. Increase the surface area of the membrane, increasing space CELL WALL – cell organelle located outside available for chemical reactions. of the plasma membrane also functions for 5. MATRIX – space within the inner protection and support. membrane. Contains hundreds of CYTOSKELETON – dense network of protein enzymes, it is important in the fibers that functions to support the shape of production of ATP. the cell and anchor other cell organelle to CHLOROPLAST – site of photosynthesis, a fixed location. process that uses solar energy to produce 1. MICROTUBULE – hollow, stiff glucose (sugar) and other food molecules. cytoskeletal elements that functions to Found in the MESOPHYLL TISSUE of the organize metabolism and intracellular interion of the leaf. transport in non-dividing cells as well 1. OUTER MEMBRANE – an outer as to stabilize cell structure. permeable membrane that envelopes 2. ACTIN FILAMENT – twisted protein the chloroplast. fibers that are responsible for cell 2. INNER MEMBRANE - inner movement. membrane of the chloroplast. 3. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT – 3. STROMA – dense fluid within the intertwined protein fiber that provides chloroplast which contains enzymes support and strength to the cell. that functions to reduce CO2 and incorporate into organic compound.  4. THYLAKOIDS – segregates the stroma from the thylakoid space inside sacs. 5. GRANA – stack of flattened membranous vesicles in the chloroplast where chlorophyll is located. 6. CHLOROPHYLL – green pigment D. CELLULAR DIGESTION CENTERS LYSOSOMES – organelles containing enzymes that dismantle and recycle food particles, capture bacteria, worn-out organelles, and debris. They lyse/cut apart substances. White blood cells have more lysosomes, because they engulf bacteria. PEROXISOMES – organelles that contains several types on enzymes that dispose toxic substances. E. OTHER PARTS OF THE CELL CYTOPLASM – jelly-like structure where cell organelles are being suspended. Site for some chemical reactions. VACUOLES – membranous sac found in plants and fungi. Storage center of the cell. Stores large amount of water, sugars, ions, and other materials. RIBOSOMES – cell organelles that process the cell’s genetic instructions to create proteins.  11. ARM – connects the tube to the base. It is used as a handle to carry the microscope. THE MICROSCOPE 12. STAGE CLIP – These hold the slides in → Tools used to enlarge images of small place when the slide is placed on the stage of objects so they can be studied. the microscope. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE – instrument 13. INCLINATION JOINT – connects the arm containing two lenses and a variety of knobs to the microscope base. It also allows the to resolve (focus) the picture. Also known as microscope to tilt to allow for a more the Light Microscope. comfortable viewing. PARTS OF A MICROSCOPE 1. EYEPIECE/OCULAR – located at the top of the microscope, this part is used to look at the samples or specimen being observed. 2. BODY TUBE – connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses. 3. FINE ADJUSTMENT KNOB – used with high-power objective to sharpen the image. Moves the stage up and down slowly to bring sample into focus. 4. NOSEPIECE – also called the revolving turret, because rotating it can increase/decrease the magnification. It also holds all of the objective lenses. 5. HIGH POWER OBJECTIVE – Ideal for observing fine details of samples, because the total magnification paired with a 10x eyepiece is 400x, giving a clear view. 6. LOW POWER OBJECTIVE – wider field of view and is commonly used for larger specimens or several smaller samples. Total magnification with 10x eyepiece is 100x. 7. DIAPHRAGM – also known as “Iris” and it controls the amount of light that reaches the samples. It is found under the stage of a microscope. 8. MIRROR – Acts as a light reflector to see the sample more clearly. It is also known as the illuminator. 9. BASE – Serves as a support for microscopes. It also carries the mirror. 10. COARSE ADJUSTMENT – used only with the low power objective and it is used to focus the microscope.