Nervous System - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica PDF

2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica Health & Medicine keyboard_arrow_right Anatomy & Physiology nervous system tocContents anatomy...

2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica Health & Medicine keyboard_arrow_right Anatomy & Physiology nervous system tocContents anatomy Ask the Chatbot a Question zoom_in Ask the Chatbot a Question more_vert More Actions Written by Solomon D. Erulkar, Thomas L. Lentz All Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Last Updated: Jan 22, 2025 Article History neuron; conduction of the action Table of Contents potential In a myelinated axon, the myelin toc sheath prevents the local current (small…...(more) News Experts hail 'milestone' in study of the deadly Huntington's disease Jan. 18, 2025, 4:21 AM ET (ABC News (Australia)) Key People: David Hunter Hubel Roger Wolcott Sperry Ivan Pavlov Galen Johannes Müller nervous system, organized group of cells specialized for the conduction of Related Topics: human ear human electrochemical stimuli from sensory receptors through a network to the site at sensory reception olfactory system taste bud eye which a response occurs. On the Web: OpenStax - All living organisms are able to detect changes within themselves and in their Microbiology - Anatomy of the Nervous System (Jan. 15, 2025) environments. Changes in the external environment include those of light, See all related content temperature, sound, motion, and odour, while changes in the internal environment include those in the position of the head and limbs as well as in the internal organs. Once detected, these internal and external changes must be analyzed and acted upon in order to survive. As life on Earth evolved and the environment became more complex, the survival of organisms depended upon play_arrow how well they could respond to changes in their surroundings. One factor necessary for survival was a speedy reaction or response. Since communication from one cell to another by chemical means was too slow to be adequate for Follow the electrical and chemical changes survival, a system evolved that allowed for faster reaction. That system was the undergone to transmit an impulse through the human nervous system...(more) The… nervous system, which is based upon the almost instantaneous transmission of See all videos for this article electrical impulses from one region of the body to another along specialized nerve cells called neurons. Nervous systems are of two general types, diffuse and centralized. In the diffuse type of system, found in lower invertebrates, there is no brain, and neurons are distributed throughout the organism in a netlike pattern. In the centralized systems of higher invertebrates and vertebrates, a portion of the 1 of 3 zoom_in nervous system has a dominant role in coordinating information and directing keyboard_arrow_right responses. This centralization reaches its culmination in vertebrates, which invertebrate: nervous system Nervous systems of a flatworm (Planaria) and a have a well-developed brain and spinal cord. Impulses are carried to and from grasshopper (order Orthoptera). the brain and spinal cord by nerve fibres that make up the peripheral nervous system. This article begins with a discussion of the general features of nervous systems —that is, their function of responding to stimuli and the rather uniform electrochemical processes by which they generate a response. Following that is a discussion of the various types of nervous systems, from the simplest to the most complex. Solomon D. Erulkar Form and function of nervous systems Stimulus-response coordination https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 1/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica The simplest type of response is a direct one-to-one stimulus-response reaction. A change in the environment is the stimulus; the reaction of the organism to it is the response. In single-celled organisms, the response is the result of a property of the cell fluid called irritability. In simple organisms, such as algae, protozoans, and fungi, a response in which the organism moves toward or away from the stimulus is called taxis. In larger and more complicated organisms —those in which response involves the synchronization and integration of events in different parts of the body—a control mechanism, or controller, is located between the stimulus and the response. In multicellular organisms, this controller consists of two basic mechanisms by which integration is achieved—chemical regulation and nervous regulation. Britannica Quiz Human Organs In chemical regulation, substances called hormones are produced by well-defined groups of cells and are either diffused or carried by the blood to other areas of the body where they act on target cells and influence metabolism or induce synthesis of other substances. The changes resulting from hormonal action are expressed in the organism as influences on, or alterations in, form, growth, reproduction, and behaviour. Plants respond to a variety of external stimuli by utilizing hormones as controllers in a stimulus-response system. Directional responses of movement are known as tropisms and are positive when the movement is toward the stimulus and negative when it is away from the stimulus. When a seed germinates, the growing stem turns upward toward the light, and the roots turn downward away from the light. Thus, the stem shows positive phototropism and negative geotropism, while the roots show negative phototropism and positive geotropism. In this example, light and gravity are the stimuli, and directional growth is the response. The controllers are certain hormones synthesized by cells in the tips of the plant stems. These hormones, known as auxins, diffuse through the tissues beneath the stem tip and concentrate toward the shaded side, causing elongation of these cells and, thus, a bending of the tip toward the light. The end result is the maintenance of the plant in an optimal condition with respect to light. Get Unlimited Access Subscribe Try Britannica Premium for free and discover more. In animals, in addition to chemical regulation via the endocrine system, there is another integrative system called the nervous system. A nervous system can be defined as an organized group of cells, called neurons, specialized for the conduction of an impulse—an excited state—from a sensory receptor through a nerve network to an effector, the site at which the response occurs. Organisms that possess a nervous system are capable of much more complex behaviour than are organisms that do not. The nervous system, specialized for the conduction of impulses, allows rapid responses to environmental stimuli. Many responses mediated by the nervous system are directed toward preserving the status quo, or homeostasis, of the animal. Stimuli that tend to displace or disrupt some part of the organism call forth a response that results in reduction of the adverse effects and a return to a more normal condition. Organisms with a nervous system are also capable of a second group of functions that initiate a variety of behaviour patterns. Animals may go through periods of exploratory or appetitive behaviour, nest building, and migration. Although these activities are beneficial to the survival of the species, they are not always performed by the individual in response to an individual need or stimulus. Finally, learned behaviour can be superimposed on both the homeostatic and initiating functions of the nervous system. Intracellular systems All living cells have the property of irritability, or responsiveness to environmental stimuli, which can affect the cell in different ways, producing, for example, electrical, chemical, or mechanical changes. These changes are expressed as a https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 2/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica response, which may be the release of secretory products by gland cells, the contraction of muscle cells, the bending of a plant-stem cell, or the beating of whiplike “hairs,” or cilia, by ciliated cells. The responsiveness of a single cell can be illustrated by the behaviour of the relatively simple amoeba. Unlike some other protozoans, an amoeba lacks highly developed structures that function in the reception of stimuli and in the production or conduction of a response. The amoeba behaves as though it had a nervous system, however, because the general responsiveness of its cytoplasm serves the functions of a nervous system. An excitation produced by a stimulus is conducted to other parts of the cell and evokes a response by the animal. An amoeba will move to a region of a certain level of light. It will be attracted by chemicals given off by foods and exhibit a feeding response. It will also withdraw from a region with noxious chemicals and exhibit an avoidance reaction upon contacting other objects. Organelle systems In more-complex protozoans, specialized cellular structures, or organelles, serve as receptors of stimulus and as effectors of response. Receptors include stiff sensory bristles in ciliates and the light-sensitive eyespots of flagellates. Effectors include cilia (slender, hairlike projections from the cell surface), flagella (elongated, whiplike cilia), and other organelles associated with drawing in food or with locomotion. Protozoans also have subcellular cytoplasmic filaments that, like muscle tissue, are contractile. The vigorous contraction of the protozoan Vorticella, for example, is the result of contraction of a threadlike structure called a myoneme in the stalk. Although protozoans clearly have specialized receptors and effectors, it is not certain that there are special conducting systems between the two. In a ciliate such as Paramecium, the beating of the cilia—which propels it along—is not random, but coordinated. Beating of the cilia begins at one end of the organism and moves in regularly spaced waves to the other end, suggesting that coordinating influences are conducted longitudinally. A system of fibrils connecting the bodies in which the cilia are rooted may provide conducting paths for the waves, but coordination of the cilia may also take place without such a system. Each cilium may respond to a stimulus carried over the cell surface from an adjacent cilium—in which case, coordination would be the result of a chain reaction from cilium to cilium. The best evidence that formed structures are responsible for coordination comes from another ciliate, Euplotes, which has a specialized band of ciliary rows (membranelles) and widely separated tufts of cilia (cirri). By means of the coordinated action of these structures, Euplotes is capable of several complicated movements in addition to swimming (e.g., turning sharply, moving backward, spinning). The five cirri at the rear of the organism are connected to the anterior end in an area known as the motorium. The fibres of the motorium apparently provide coordination between the cirri and the membranelles. The membranelles, cirri, and motorium constitute a neuromotor system. Nervous systems The basic pattern of stimulus-response coordination in animals is an organization of receptor, adjustor, and effector units. External stimuli are received by the receptor cells, which, in most cases, are neurons. (In a few instances, a receptor is a non-nervous sensory epithelial cell, such as a hair cell of the inner ear or a taste cell, which stimulates adjacent neurons.) The stimulus is modified, or transduced, into an electrical impulse in the receptor neuron. This incoming excitation, or afferent impulse, then passes along an extension, or axon, of the receptor to an adjustor, called an interneuron. (All neurons are capable of conducting an impulse, which is a brief change in the electrical charge on the cell membrane. Such an impulse can be transmitted, without loss in strength, many times along an axon until the message, or input, reaches another neuron, which in turn is excited.) The interneuron-adjustor selects, interprets, or modifies the input from the receptor and sends an outgoing, or efferent, impulse to an efferent neuron, such as a motor neuron. The efferent neuron, in turn, makes contact with an effector such as a muscle or gland, which produces a response. In the simplest arrangement, the receptor-adjustor-effector units form a functional group known as the reflex arc. Sensory cells carry afferent impulses to a central interneuron, which makes contact with a motor neuron. The motor neuron carries efferent impulses to the effector, which produces the response. Three types of neurons are involved in this reflex arc, but a two-neuron arc, in which the receptor makes contact directly with the motor neuron, also occurs. In https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 3/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica a two-neuron arc, simple reflexes are prompt, short-lived, and automatic and involve only a part of the body. Examples of simple reflexes are the contraction of a muscle in response to stretch, the blink of the eye when the cornea is touched, and salivation at the sight of food. Reflexes of this type are usually involved in maintaining homeostasis. The differences between simple and complex nervous systems lie not in the basic units but in their arrangement. In higher nervous systems, there are more interneurons concentrated in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) that mediate the impulses between afferent and efferent neurons. Sensory impulses from particular receptors travel through specific neuronal pathways to the central nervous system. Within the central nervous system, though, the impulse can travel through multiple pathways formed by numerous neurons. Theoretically, the impulse can be distributed to any of the efferent motor neurons and produce a response in any of the effectors. It is also possible for many kinds of stimuli to produce the same response. As a result of the integrative action of the interneuron, the behaviour of the organism is more than the simple sum of its reflexes; it is an integrated whole that exhibits coordination between many individual reflexes. Reflexes can occur in a complicated sequence producing elaborate behaviour patterns. Behaviour in such cases is characterized not by inherited, stereotyped responses but by flexibility and adaptability to circumstances. Many automatic, unconditioned reflexes can be modified by or adapted to new stimuli. The experiments of Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, for example, showed that if an animal salivates at the sight of food while another stimulus, such as the sound of a bell, occurs simultaneously, the sound alone can induce salivation after several trials. This response, known as a conditioned reflex, is a form of learning. The behaviour of the animal is no longer limited by fixed, inherited reflex arcs but can be modified by experience and exposure to an unlimited number of stimuli. The most evolved nervous systems are capable of even higher associative functions such as thinking and memory. The complex manipulation of the signals necessary for these functions depends to a great extent on the number and intricacy of the arrangement of interneurons. Thomas L. Lentz Solomon D. Erulkar The nerve cell The watershed of all studies of the nervous system was an observation made in 1889 by Spanish scientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, who reported that the nervous system is composed of individual units that are structurally independent of one another and whose internal contents do not come into direct contact. According to his hypothesis, now known as the neuron theory, each nerve cell communicates with others through contiguity rather than continuity. That is, communication between adjacent but separate cells must take place across the space and barriers separating them. It has since been proved that Cajal’s theory is not universally true, but his central idea—that communication in the nervous system is largely communication between independent nerve cells—has remained an accurate guiding principle for all further study. There are two basic cell types within the nervous system: neurons and neuroglial cells. The neuron In the human brain there are an estimated 85 billion to 200 billion neurons. Each neuron has its own identity, expressed by its interactions with other neurons and by its secretions; each also has its own function, depending on its intrinsic properties and location as well as its inputs from other select groups of neurons, its capacity to integrate those inputs, and its ability to transmit the information to another select group of neurons. With few exceptions, most neurons consist of three distinct regions, as shown in the diagram: (1) the cell body, or soma; (2) the nerve fibre, or axon; and (3) the zoom_in receiving processes, or dendrites. Soma Plasma membrane https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 4/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica The neuron is bound by a plasma membrane, a structure so thin that its fine detail can be revealed only by high-resolution electron microscopy. About half of the membrane is the lipid bilayer, two sheets of mainly phospholipids with a space between. One end of a phospholipid molecule is hydrophilic, or water attaching, and the other end is hydrophobic, or water repelling. The bilayer structure results when the hydrophilic ends of the phospholipid molecules in each sheet turn toward the watery mediums of both the cell interior and the extracellular environment, while the hydrophobic ends of the molecules turn in toward the space between the sheets. These lipid layers are not rigid structures; the loosely bonded phospholipid molecules can move laterally across the surfaces of the membrane, and the interior is in a highly liquid state. motor neuron Anatomy of a nerve cell. Structural features of a motor neuron include the cell body, nerve fibres, and dendrites. Britannica Quiz Human Organs zoom_in Embedded within the lipid bilayer are proteins, which also float in the liquid environment of the membrane. These include glycoproteins containing polysaccharide chains, which function, along with other carbohydrates, as adhesion sites and recognition sites for attachment and chemical interaction with other neurons. The proteins provide another basic and crucial function: those which penetrate the membrane can exist in more than one conformational state, or molecular shape, forming channels that allow ions to pass between the extracellular fluid and the cytoplasm, or internal contents of the cell. In other conformational states, they can block the passage of ions. This action is the fundamental mechanism that determines the excitability and pattern of electrical activity of the neuron. neuron from visual cortex of a rat The centre of the field is occupied by the cell A complex system of proteinaceous intracellular filaments is linked to the body, or soma, of the neuron. Most of...(more) the c… membrane proteins. This cytoskeleton includes thin neurofilaments containing actin, thick neurofilaments similar to myosin, and microtubules composed of tubulin. The filaments are probably involved with movement and translocation of the membrane proteins, while microtubules may anchor the proteins to the cytoplasm. Nucleus Each neuron contains a nucleus defining the location of the soma. The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane, called the nuclear envelope, that fuses at intervals to form pores allowing molecular communication with the cytoplasm. Within the nucleus are the chromosomes, the genetic material of the cell, through which the nucleus controls the synthesis of proteins and the growth and differentiation of the cell into its final form. Proteins synthesized in the neuron include enzymes, receptors, hormones, and structural proteins for the cytoskeleton. Organelles The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a widely spread membrane system within the neuron that is continuous with the nuclear envelope. It consists of series of tubules, flattened sacs called cisternae, and membrane-bound spheres called vesicles. There are two types of ER. The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has rows of knobs called ribosomes on its surface. Ribosomes synthesize proteins that, for the most part, are transported out of the cell. The RER is found only in the soma. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) consists of a network of tubules in the soma that connects the RER with the Golgi apparatus. The tubules can also enter the axon at its initial segment and extend to the axon terminals. The Golgi apparatus is a complex of flattened cisternae arranged in closely packed rows. Located close to and around the nucleus, it receives proteins synthesized in the RER and transferred to it via the SER. At the Golgi apparatus, the https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 5/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica proteins are attached to carbohydrates. The glycoproteins so formed are packaged into vesicles that leave the complex to be incorporated into the cell membrane. Axon The axon arises from the soma at a region called the axon hillock, or initial segment. This is the region where the plasma membrane generates nerve impulses; the axon conducts these impulses away from the soma or dendrites toward other neurons. Large axons acquire an insulating myelin sheath and are known as myelinated, or medullated, fibres. Myelin is composed of 80 percent lipid and 20 percent protein; cholesterol is one of the major lipids, along with variable amounts of cerebrosides and phospholipids. Concentric layers of these lipids separated by thin layers of protein give rise to a high-resistance, low-capacitance electrical insulator interrupted at intervals by gaps called nodes of Ranvier, where the nerve membrane is exposed to the external environment. In the central nervous system the myelin sheath is formed from glial cells called oligodendrocytes, and in peripheral nerves it is formed from Schwann cells (see below The neuroglia). While the axon mainly conducts nerve impulses from the soma to the terminal, the terminal itself secretes chemical substances called neurotransmitters. The synthesis of these substances can occur in the terminal itself, but the synthesizing enzymes are formed by ribosomes in the soma and must be transported down the axon to the terminal. This process is known as axoplasmic flow; it occurs in both directions along the axon and may be facilitated by microtubules. At the terminal of the axon, and sometimes along its length, are specialized structures that form junctions with other neurons and with muscle cells. These junctions are called synapses. Presynaptic terminals, when seen by light microscope, look like small knobs and contain many organelles. The most numerous of these are synaptic vesicles, which, filled with neurotransmitters, are often clumped in areas of the terminal membrane that appear to be thickened. The thickened areas are called presynaptic dense projections, or active zones. The presynaptic terminal is unmyelinated and is separated from the neuron or muscle cell onto which it impinges by a gap called the synaptic cleft, across which neurotransmitters diffuse when released from the vesicles. In nerve-muscle junctions the synaptic cleft contains a structure called the basal lamina, which holds an enzyme that destroys neurotransmitters and thus regulates the amount that reaches the postsynaptic receptors on the receiving cell. Most knowledge of postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptors comes from studies of the receptor on muscle cells. This receptor, called the end plate, is a glycoprotein composed of five subunits. Other neurotransmitter receptors do not have the same structure, but they are all proteins and probably have subunits with a central channel that is activated by the neurotransmitter. While the chemically mediated synapse described above forms the majority of synapses in vertebrate nervous systems, there are other types of synapses in vertebrate brains and, in especially great numbers, in invertebrate and fish nervous systems. At these synapses there is no synaptic gap; instead, there are gap junctions, direct channels between neurons that establish a continuity between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells and a structural symmetry between the pre- and postsynaptic sites. Rapid neuronal communication at these junctions is probably electrical in nature. (For further discussion, see below Transmission at the synapse.) More From Britannica reptile: Nervous system Dendrites Besides the axon, neurons have other branches called dendrites that are usually shorter than axons and are unmyelinated. Dendrites are thought to form receiving surfaces for synaptic input from other neurons. In many dendrites these surfaces are provided by specialized structures called dendritic spines, which, by providing discrete regions for the reception of nerve impulses, isolate changes in electrical current from the main dendritic trunk. https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 6/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica The traditional view of dendritic function presumes that only axons conduct nerve impulses and only dendrites receive them, but dendrites can form synapses with dendrites and axons and even somata can receive impulses. Indeed, some neurons have no axon; in these cases nervous transmission is carried out by the dendrites. The neuroglia Neurons form a minority of the cells in the nervous system. Exceeding them in number by at least 10 to 1 are neuroglial cells, which exist in the nervous systems of invertebrates as well as vertebrates. Neuroglia can be distinguished from neurons by their lack of axons and by the presence of only one type of process. In addition, they do not form synapses, and they retain the ability to divide throughout their life span. While neurons and neuroglia lie in close apposition to one another, there are no direct junctional specializations, such as gap junctions, between the two types. Gap junctions do exist between neuroglial cells. Types of neuroglia Apart from conventional histological and electron-microscopic techniques, immunologic techniques are used to identify different neuroglial cell types. By staining the cells with antibodies that bind to specific protein constituents of different neuroglia, neurologists have been able to discern two (in some opinions, three) main groups of neuroglia: (1) astrocytes, subdivided into fibrous and protoplasmic types; (2) oligodendrocytes, subdivided into interfascicular and perineuronal types; and sometimes (3) microglia. Fibrous astrocytes are prevalent among myelinated nerve fibres in the white matter of the central nervous system. Organelles seen in the somata of neurons are also seen in astrocytes, but they appear to be much sparser. These cells are characterized by the presence of numerous fibrils in their cytoplasm. The main processes exit the cell in a radial direction (hence the name astrocyte, meaning “star-shaped cell”), forming expansions and end feet at the surfaces of vascular capillaries. Unlike fibrous astrocytes, protoplasmic astrocytes occur in the gray matter of the central nervous system. They have fewer fibrils within their cytoplasm, and cytoplasmic organelles are sparse, so that the somata are shaped by surrounding neurons and fibres. The processes of protoplasmic astrocytes also make contact with capillaries. Oligodendrocytes have few cytoplasmic fibrils but a well-developed Golgi apparatus. They can be distinguished from astrocytes by the greater density of both the cytoplasm and the nucleus, the absence of fibrils and of glycogen in the cytoplasm, and large numbers of microtubules in the processes. Interfascicular oligodendrocytes are aligned in rows between the nerve fibres of the white matter of the central nervous system. In gray matter, perineuronal oligodendrocytes are located in close proximity to the somata of neurons. In the peripheral nervous system, neuroglia that are equivalent to oligodendrocytes are called Schwann cells. Microglial cells are small cells with dark cytoplasm and a dark nucleus. It is uncertain whether they are merely damaged neuroglial cells or occur as a separate group in living tissue. Neuroglial functions The term neuroglia means “nerve glue,” and these cells were originally thought to be structural supports for neurons. This is still thought to be plausible, but other functions of the neuroglia are now generally accepted. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells produce the myelin sheath around neuronal axons. Some constituent of the axonal surface stimulates Schwann cell proliferation; the type of axon determines whether there is loose or tight myelination of the axon. In tight myelination a glial cell wraps itself like a rolled sheet around a length of axon until the fibre is covered by several layers. Between segments of myelin wrapping are exposed sections called nodes of Ranvier, which are important in the transmission of nerve impulses. Myelinated nerve fibres are found only in vertebrates, leading biologists to conclude that they are an adaptation to transmission over relatively long distances. Another well-defined role of neuroglial cells is the repair of the central nervous system following injury. Astrocytes divide after injury to the nervous system and occupy the spaces left by injured neurons. The role of oligodendrocytes https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 7/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica after injury is unclear, but they may proliferate and form myelin sheaths. When neurons of the peripheral nervous system are severed, they undergo a process of degeneration followed by regeneration; fibres regenerate in such a way that they return to their original target sites. Schwann cells that remain after nerve degeneration apparently determine the route. This route direction is also performed by astrocytes during development of the central nervous system. In the developing cerebral cortex and cerebellum of primates, astrocytes project long processes to certain locations, and neurons migrate along these processes to arrive at their final locations. Thus, neuronal organization is brought about to some extent by the neuroglia. Astrocytes are also thought to have high-affinity uptake systems for neurotransmitters such as glutamate and gamma- aminobutyric acid (GABA). This function is important in the modulation of synaptic transmission. Uptake systems tend to terminate neurotransmitter action at the synapses and may also act as storage systems for neurotransmitters when they are needed. For instance, when motor nerves are severed, nerve terminals degenerate and their original sites are occupied by Schwann cells. The synthesis of neurotransmitters by neurons apparently also requires the presence of neuroglial cells in the vicinity. Finally, the environment surrounding neurons in the brain consists of a network of very narrow extracellular clefts. In 1907 Italian biologist Emilio Lugaro suggested that neuroglial cells exchange substances with the extracellular fluid and in this way exert control on the neuronal environment. It has since been shown that glucose, amino acids, and ions—all of which influence neuronal function—are exchanged between the extracellular space and neuroglial cells. After high levels of neuronal activity, for instance, neuroglial cells can take up and spatially buffer potassium ions and thus maintain normal neuronal function. Transmission of information in the nervous system In the nervous system of animals at all levels of the evolutionary scale, the signals containing information about a particular stimulus are electrical in nature. In the past the nerve fibre and its contents were compared to metal wire, while the membrane was compared to insulation around the wire. This comparison was erroneous for a number of reasons. First, the charge carriers in nerves are ions, not electrons, and the density of ions in the axon is much less than that of electrons in a metal wire. Second, the membrane of an axon is not a perfect insulator, so that the movement of current along the axon is not complete. Finally, nerve fibres are smaller than most wires, so that the currents they can carry are limited in amplitude. The ionic basis of electrical signals Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that gain an electrical charge by losing or acquiring electrons. For example, in the reaction that forms salt from sodium and chlorine, each sodium atom donates an electron, which is negatively charged, to a chlorine atom. The result is sodium chloride (NaCl), composed of one positively charged sodium ion (Na+) and one negatively charged chloride ion (Cl−). A positively charged ion is called a cation; a negatively charged ion, an anion. The electrical events that constitute signaling in the nervous system depend upon the distribution of such ions on either side of the nerve membrane. Underlying these distributions and their change are crucial physical-chemical principles. Diffusion of ions across a membrane Uncharged molecules Molecules in solution move randomly; the energy for their movement is derived from thermal energy. When a permeable membrane (a membrane that allows molecules to cross it) divides a heavily concentrated solution from a less-concentrated solution, there occurs a diffusion of molecules through the membrane and down their concentration gradient—that is, from the fluid with the higher concentration to that with the lower concentration. The number of molecules moving per unit of time is called the flow rate, or flux rate. Diffusion continues until the concentrations on both sides of the membrane are equal. A condition of no net flux is then established with an equal, random diffusion of molecules in both directions. This is called the equilibrium state. https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 8/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica A membrane with pores allowing passage of molecules of only a particular size is called a semipermeable membrane. The semipermeable membrane imposes a condition of restricted diffusion in which the flux rate of the diffusing material is controlled by the permeability of the membrane, which in turn is dictated by the size of the pores and is given a unit of measure called the permeability coefficient. Water The water molecule, like other molecules, diffuses down its concentration gradient. If a rigid vessel contains water on one side of a semipermeable zoom_in membrane and an impermeant substance (a substance that cannot cross the membrane) on the other side, the water tends to cross the membrane, diluting the substance and increasing the hydrostatic pressure on the other side, as shown in the diagram. The pressure then will tend to push water back across the membrane in opposition to the net flux. When the pressure built up equals the diffusion of water in the opposite direction, no net flux occurs and equilibrium is diffusion of water across a semipermeable established. The migration of water (or any solvent) across a membrane is called membrane (A) Water diffuses down its concentration gradient from side 1 to side 2…...(more) osmosis, and the pressure necessary to establish equilibrium is called osmotic pressure. Water moves from a region of low osmotic pressure to a region of high osmotic pressure. The above example refers to water in a container with rigid walls. The neuron, however, has somewhat flexible walls, so that as water enters it, the cell tends to increase in volume, or swell. There is a direct relation between osmotic pressure across the plasma membrane and the final volume of a cell at equilibrium, so that if the osmotic pressure of the cell exterior is halved, the equilibrium volume of the cell will be twice its original volume. Ions When potassium chloride (KCl) is placed into solution, the elements separate zoom_in into potassium cations (K+) and chloride anions (Cl−). Ions follow much the same principles of diffusion as uncharged molecules. For example, if a highly concentrated solution of KCl is separated from a lower concentration by a semipermeable membrane—one that is permeable to cations only—then K+ from the higher concentration diffuses across the membrane, following its concentration gradient to the region of lower concentration. Cl−, being blocked by the membrane, remains behind. At this point the diffusion of ions creates conditions quite different from the diffusion of uncharged molecules and water ion diffusion across a semipermeable membrane Diffusion of ions across a molecules. The movement of cations toward the less-concentrated solution semipermeable membrane. (A) A high…...(more) creates a separation of electrical charge across the membrane—that is, a greater number of positively charged ions will have moved to the side with the less-concentrated solution of KCl, and the side of the membrane with the higher concentration will have a more negative charge. This separation of charge—actually a difference in electrical potential—is called the potential difference, and it is the starting point of all electrical events in nervous systems. When present in the plasma membrane of the neuron, the potential difference transforms the neuron into an electrolytic cell that is capable, upon stimulation, of generating and transmitting electrical impulses. Complicating the ionic diffusion process is the phenomenon that opposite charges attract. This means that, in the example above, some of the K+ diffusing across the membrane is electrostatically drawn back up its concentration gradient toward the Cl−. This creates a situation in which two tendencies oppose each other: (1) the diffusing tendency of the cation down its concentration gradient; and (2) the electrostatic voltage force tending to draw the cation back. These two forces eventually reach a state of no net flux, when the number of cations that they draw in each direction across the membrane is equal. The system is then in electrochemical equilibrium. At equilibrium, one side of the membrane may still have a more negative charge than the other. The potential difference is then called the equilibrium potential. (It is also called the Nernst potential, after Walther Nernst, a German physical chemist who, in the late 19th https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 9/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica century, developed equations for calculating the electrical potential at which there is no longer a net flux of a specific ion across a membrane.) The law of electroneutrality states that in any single ionic solution a sum of negative electrical charges attracts an equal sum of positive electrical charges. If a solution of KCl is divided into two parts by a membrane that is permeable to both ions, then the equal concentration of KCl across the membrane preserves chemical equilibrium between the two sides, while the equal concentrations of K+ and Cl− on each side preserve electroneutrality on each side as well. This equilibrium can be upset by the addition to side 1 of a large number of K+ and an equal charge of impermeant anions (that is, negatively charged ions other than Cl− that cannot permeate the membrane). In this case electroneutrality on side 1 is preserved, since the sum of positive charges added to that side is equaled by the sum of added negative charges. However, chemical equilibrium between side 1 and side 2 is not preserved, since side 1 now has a greater concentration of ions than side 2. Therefore, K+ diffuses down its concentration gradient, crossing the membrane to side 2 while drawing Cl− with it to preserve electroneutrality. Diffusion continues until a new state of electrochemical equilibrium is reached; this occurs when the ratio of K+ concentration (on side 2 to that on side 1) is equal to the ratio of Cl− concentration (on side 1 to that on side 2). Stated mathematically, equilibrium is reached when This is known as the Donnan equilibrium, after Frederick George Donnan, a British chemist who, in 1911, first measured the changes brought about by adding an impermeant substance to one side of a divided solution at equilibrium. In the new state of equilibrium, both sides are electrically neutral, since the impermeant anions added to side 1 are equaled by the added K+, and the K+ that has diffused to side 2 is balanced by the Cl− electrostatically drawn along with it. But the entire solution is not at osmotic equilibrium, because the larger amount of ions on side 1 tends to draw water from side 2. Osmotic equilibrium can be established by the addition of ions to side 2. Indeed, in the neuron, osmotic equilibrium is maintained partly because large amounts of K+ and impermeant anions inside the cell are balanced by large amounts of salt outside the cell. The neuronal membrane The principles outlined above can be applied to the neuron and its ionic contents. The plasma membrane of the neuron is semipermeable, being highly permeable to K+ and slightly permeable to Cl− and Na+. In the extracellular fluid, electroneutrality is preserved by a balance between a high concentration of Na+ on the one hand and a high concentration of Cl−, as well as small quantities of impermeant anions such as bicarbonate, phosphate, and sulfate, on the other. In the cytoplasm, where K+ concentration is high, the concentration of Cl− is much below that necessary to balance the sum of the positive charges. Electroneutrality is maintained there by negatively charged impermeant proteins and phosphates. Osmotic balance is maintained between the extracellular fluid and the cytoplasm by movement of water through the plasma membrane when the total concentration of particles on one side is not equal to that on the other. These three characteristics of the neuron—semipermeability of the membrane, osmotic balance, and electroneutrality on each side—create an equilibrium electrical potential at which the inside of the membrane is more negative than the outside. In most neurons this potential, called the membrane potential, is between −60 and −75 millivolts (mV; or thousandths of a volt; the minus sign indicates that the inner surface is negative). When the inside of the plasma membrane has a negative charge compared to the outside, the neuron is said to be polarized. Any change in membrane potential tending to make the inside even more negative is called hyperpolarization, while any change tending to make it less negative is called depolarization. As stated above, the Nernst potential is the potential difference that exists across a membrane when a particular ion, having reached equilibrium between the tendency to diffuse down its concentration gradient and the tendency to be https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 10/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica drawn back by other ions, is in a state of no net flux. The plasma membrane of the neuron is highly permeable to K+, and in fact the recorded membrane potential of most neurons (−60 to −75 mV) is close to that predicted by the Nernst equation for K+. However, it is not exactly the same, because K+ is not the only ion affecting the membrane potential. The membrane is also slightly permeable to Na+ and Cl−. The permeability to Na+ may be low, but the high concentration of this cation outside the cell and the slightly negative electric charge inside the cell tend to drive Na+ inward. This in turn causes the inside of the cell to depolarize, placing K+ out of equilibrium. As a consequence, K+ leaves the cell until an equilibrium state is reached in which the leak inward of Na+ is equaled by the leak outward of K+ and there is no net flux of ions. There is also a tendency for Cl− to permeate the membrane, since that ion is at higher concentration outside the neuron than inside. Therefore, for an equilibrium state to be produced, the sum of all three net currents must equal zero. Given the concentrations of all three ions on each side of the membrane and the relative permeability of the membrane to each ion, researchers can calculate the combined effect of K+, Na+, and Cl− on the membrane potential by using the so-called constant-field equation. This equation, by including relative permeability as an important factor, takes into account the phenomenon that the more permeable a membrane is to a particular ion, the greater is the influence of that ion on the membrane potential. The permeance of Na+, for example, is only a fraction of that of K+, and the permeance of Cl− is lower yet; therefore, while the membrane potential is highly sensitive to changes in the concentration of K+, it is less affected by changes in Na+ and almost unaffected by changes in Cl−. Transmission in the neuron The discussion above demonstrates that the electrical potential existing in neurons is based on the distribution of ions across the plasma membrane and that this distribution comes about through permeation of the membrane. In fact, ions are almost always hydrated in the form of ion-water complexes, which have great difficulty in penetrating the hydrophobic lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane. Permeation actually occurs through protein structures embedded in the lipid bilayer and spanning the membrane from cytoplasm to extracellular fluid. These structures, sometimes pumping ions from one side to the other and sometimes merely providing channels through which diffusing ions can flow past the lipid molecules, maintain the ionic distribution that keeps the membrane polarized, and they also allow the abrupt changes in distribution that create nerve impulses. The protein structures are described in detail in the section Ion transport. Following is a discussion of the electrical events, created by movement of ions, that lead to nervous transmission in the neuron. Resting potential The electrical potential across the nerve membrane can be measured by placing one microelectrode within the neuron (usually in the soma) and a second zoom_in microelectrode in the extracellular fluid. The microelectrode consists of a sharp- tipped glass capillary tube filled with conducting solution. Upon penetration of the neuron, the potential at the tip of the electrode becomes electrically negative in relation to the outside of the electrode. As described above and shown in the graph, the value of this negative charge is usually between −60 and −75 mV. This is the membrane potential of the neuron at rest (i.e., when it is not generating a nerve impulse), and for this reason it is called the resting potential. ion permeance and action potential Changes in ion permeance The resting potential is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump, which underlying the action potentialElectrical…...(more) steadily discharges more positive charge (i.e., Na+) from the cell than it allows in, and by the relatively high permeance of K+, which leaks out of the cell through its membrane channels faster than Na+ leaks in. Localized potential https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 11/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica When a physical stimulus, such as touch, taste, or colour, acts on a sensory receptor cell specifically designed to respond to that stimulus, then the energy of the stimulus (e.g., mechanical, chemical, light) is transduced, or transformed, play_arrow into an electrical response. This response is called the receptor potential, a type of local potential that, when it reaches high enough amplitude, generates the nerve impulse. (Another type of local potential is the postsynaptic potential, Hear a neuroscientist Christof Koch speaks which originates in chemical receptors at the synaptic cleft. See the section about how a neuron identifies selective Transmission at the synapse: Chemical transmission.) encoding and coding to specific…...(more) See all videos for this article Sensory receptors transduce stimuli into electrical responses by activating ion channels in their membranes. For example, in the stretch receptors of neurons attached to muscle cells, the stretching action of the muscle is thought to put a mechanical stress on protein filaments of the cytoskeleton, which in turn alter the shape of ion channels, inducing them to open and allowing cations to diffuse into the cell. Receptor cells sensitive to chemical and light energy, on the other hand, activate ion channels through the second-messenger system. In this system, stimulated receptor molecules on the surface of the cell membrane catalyze a series of enzymatic reactions within the cytoplasm; these reactions in turn release energy, which activates the ion channels. By permitting a flux of Na+ into the cell, the opening of ion channels slightly depolarizes the membrane. The extent to which the membrane is depolarized depends upon the extent to which the sodium channels are activated, and this in turn depends upon the strength and duration of the original stimulus at the receptor. If depolarization reaches what is called the threshold potential, it triggers the nerve impulse, or action potential see below. If it does not reach that amplitude, then the neuron remains at rest, and the local potential, through a process called passive spread, diffuses along the nerve fibre and back out through the membrane. When it is of the postsynaptic type, the local potential usually begins in the dendrites and spreads toward the soma and axon. It is at the initial segment of the axon where, if the local potential is of threshold amplitude, the nerve impulse is generated. Action potential Depolarization Because it varies in amplitude, the local potential is said to be graded. The greater the influx of positive charge—and, consequently, depolarization of the membrane—the higher the grade. Beginning at the resting potential of a neuron (for instance, −75 mV), a local potential can be of any grade up to the threshold potential (for instance, −58 mV). At the threshold, voltage-dependent sodium channels become fully activated, and Na+ pours into the cell. Almost instantly the membrane actually reverses polarity, and the inside acquires a positive charge in relation to the outside. This reverse polarity constitutes the nerve impulse. It is called the action potential because the positive charge then flows through the cytoplasm, activating sodium channels along the entire length of the nerve fibre. This series of activations, by propagating the action potential along the fibre with virtually no reduction in amplitude, gives the nerve impulse its regenerative property. Researchers call the nerve impulse an “all-or-none” reaction since there are no gradations between threshold potential and fully activated potential. The neuron is either at rest with a polarized membrane, or it is conducting a nerve impulse at reverse polarization. The reverse polarity of active neurons is measured at about +30 mV. This is close to the Nernst potential for Na+—that is, the membrane potential at which electrochemical equilibrium would be established if the membrane were completely permeable to Na+. Repolarization As instantaneous as the opening of sodium channels at threshold potential is their closing at the peak of action potential. This is called sodium inactivation, and it is caused by gates within the channel that are sensitive to depolarization. Following sodium inactivation is the opening of potassium channels, which allows the diffusion of K+ https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 12/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica out of the cell. The combined effect of sodium inactivation, which blocks the influx of cations, and potassium activation, which causes the efflux of other cations, is the immediate return of the cell membrane to a polarized state, with the inside negative in relation to the outside. After repolarization there is a period during which a second action potential cannot be initiated, no matter how large a stimulus current is applied to the neuron. This is called the absolute refractory period, and it is followed by a relative refractory period, during which another action potential can be generated, but only by a greater stimulus current than that originally needed. This period is followed by the return of the neuronal properties to the threshold levels originally required for the initiation of action potentials. Conduction The sequence of sodium activation–sodium inactivation–potassium activation creates a nerve impulse that is brief in duration, lasting only a few milliseconds, and that travels down the nerve fibre like a wave, the membrane depolarizing in front of the current and repolarizing behind. Because nerve impulses are not graded in amplitude, it is not the size of the action potential that is important in processing information within the nervous system; rather, it is the number and frequency with which the impulses are fired. As stated above, the action potential is propagated along the axon without any decrease in amplitude with distance. However, the velocity of conduction along the nerve fibre is dependent upon several factors. The first factor is the outside diameter of the nerve fibre. The fastest conduction velocity occurs in the largest diameter nerve fibres. This phenomenon has formed the basis for classifying mammalian nerve fibres into groups in order of decreasing diameter and decreasing conduction velocity. Another factor is the temperature of the nerve fibre. Conduction velocity increases at high temperatures and decreases at low temperatures. Indeed, nerve conduction can be blocked by the local application of cold to a nerve fibre. Conduction velocity is also affected by myelination of the nerve fibre. Since ions cannot cross the lipid content of the myelin sheath, they spread passively down the nerve fibre until reaching the unmyelinated nodes of Ranvier. The nodes of Ranvier are packed with a high concentration of ion channels, which, upon stimulation, propagate the nerve impulse to the next node. In this manner the action potential jumps quickly from node to node along the fibre in a process called saltatory conduction (from Latin saltare, “to jump”). Transmission at the synapse Once an action potential has been generated at the axon hillock, it is conducted along the length of the axon until it reaches the terminals, the fingerlike extensions of the neuron that are next to other neurons and muscle cells (see the section The nerve cell: The neuron). At this point there exist two methods for transmitting the action potential from one cell to the other. In electrical transmission, the ionic current flows directly through channels that couple the cells. In chemical transmission, a chemical substance called the neurotransmitter passes from one cell to the other, stimulating the second cell to generate its own action potential. Electrical transmission This method of transmitting nerve impulses, while far less common than chemical transmission, occurs in the nervous systems of invertebrates and lower vertebrates, as well as in the central nervous systems of some mammals. Transmission takes place through gap junctions, which are protein channels that link the cellular contents of adjacent neurons. Direct diffusion of ions through these junctions allows the action potential to be transmitted with little or no delay or distortion, in effect synchronizing the response of an entire group of neurons. The channels often allow ions to diffuse in both directions, but some gated channels restrict transmission to only one direction. Chemical transmission There are two classic preparations for the study of chemical transmission at the synapse. One is the vertebrate neuromuscular junction, and the other is the giant synapse of the squid Loligo. These sites have the advantage of being readily accessible for recording by electrodes—especially the squid synapse, which is large enough that electrodes can be inserted directly into the presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic fibre. In addition, only a single synapse is involved at https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 13/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica these sites, whereas a single neuron of the central nervous system may have many synapses with many other neurons, each with a different neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter release Two factors are essential for the release of the neurotransmitter from the presynaptic terminal: (1) depolarization of the terminal and (2) the presence of zoom_in calcium ions (Ca2+) in the extracellular fluid. The membrane of the presynaptic terminal contains voltage-dependent calcium channels that open when the membrane is depolarized by a nerve impulse, allowing Ca2+ to diffuse into the terminal along its concentration gradient. (See the figure.) Following the entrance of Ca2+ is the release of neurotransmitter. Synapse Chemical transmission of a nerve impulse at the synapse. The arrival of the nerve impulse at the presynaptic terminal…...(more) It is uncertain what happens in the time between Ca2+ entry and transmitter release. Ca2+ is known to be sequestered by certain organelles within the terminal, including the endoplasmic reticulum. The ions may attach to the membranes of synaptic vesicles, in some way facilitating their fusion with the nerve terminal membrane. They may also be removed from the terminal by exchange with extracellular Na+—a mechanism known to occur at some neuronal membranes. What is certain is that when the concentration of Ca2+ is increased within the terminal, the probability of transmitter release is also increased. Neurotransmitters are packed into small, membrane-bound synaptic vesicles. Each vesicle contains thousands of neurotransmitter molecules, and there are thousands of vesicles in each axon terminal. Once stimulated by Ca2+, the vesicles move through the cytoplasm and fuse their membranes with the plasma membrane of the terminal. The transmitter molecules are then expelled from the vesicles into the synaptic cleft. This expulsion process is called exocytosis. Vesicle membranes are then recovered from the plasma membrane through endocytosis. In this process the membranes are surrounded by a protein coat at the lateral margins of the synapse and are then transferred to cisternae, which form in the terminal during nerve stimulation. There the vesicles lose their coats, are probably refilled with neurotransmitter, and pinch off from the cisternae to become synaptic vesicles once more. Because the neurotransmitter chemicals are packed into separate, almost identically sized vesicles, their release into the synaptic cleft is said to be quantal—that is, they are expelled in parcels, each vesicle adding its contents incrementally to the contents released from other parcels. This quantal release of neurotransmitter has a critical influence on the electrical potential created in the postsynaptic membrane. Postsynaptic potential After neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic terminal, it diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane. Some receptors are ion channels that open or close when their molecular configuration is altered by the binding action of the neurotransmitter. Others are membrane proteins that, upon activation, catalyze second-messenger reactions within the postsynaptic cell; these reactions in turn open or close the ion channels. Whether acting upon ion channels directly or indirectly, the neurotransmitter molecules cause a sudden change in the permeability of the membrane to specific ions. Exactly which ions now permeate the membrane vary according to the neurotransmitters and their receptors (see the section Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators), but the net result of a change in ion diffusion is a change in electrical potential across the membrane. This change is called the postsynaptic potential, or PSP. (In reference to the neuromuscular synapse, it is called the end-plate potential, or EPP.) The most common potential change is depolarization, caused by a net influx of cations (usually Na+). Because this infusion of positive charge brings the membrane potential toward the threshold at which the nerve impulse is generated, it is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). Other neurotransmitters stimulate a net efflux of positive charge (usually in the form of K+ diffusing out of the cell), leaving the inside of the membrane more negative. Because this hyperpolarization draws the membrane potential farther from the threshold, making it more difficult to generate a nerve impulse, it is called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). The interaction of competing EPSPs https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 14/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica and IPSPs at the hundreds or even thousands of synapses on a single neuron determines whether the nerve impulse arriving at the presynaptic terminals will be regenerated in the postsynaptic membrane. The PSP is a type of local potential, having properties similar to the electrical potential set up at sensory receptor neurons (see the section Transmission in the neuron: Localized potential). Like the receptor potential, the PSP is a graded response, varying in amplitude according to the duration and amount of stimulation by neurotransmitters. At the neuromuscular junction, brief depolarizations measuring no more than one millivolt can be observed in the postsynaptic muscle membrane, even when it is at rest. These tiny electrical events, called miniature end-plate potentials (MEPPs), or miniature postsynaptic potentials (MPSPs), are caused by the random release of single quanta of neurotransmitter from a resting presynaptic terminal. The EPP is actually made up of multiple MEPPs, which arise when an activated terminal releases hundreds of neurotransmitter quanta. A series of EPPs, or a number of them stimulated simultaneously at many synapses, can then bring the cell to the threshold of the action potential. This combined action of EPPs is called summation. In contrast to electrical transmission, which takes place with almost no delay, chemical transmission exhibits synaptic delay. Recordings from squid synapses and neuromuscular junctions of the frog reveal a delay of 0.5 to 4.0 milliseconds between the onset of action potential at the nerve terminal and action potential at the postsynaptic site. This delay may be accounted for by three factors. First, diffusion of the neurotransmitter across the synaptic cleft takes approximately 0.05 millisecond. Second, the response of the postsynaptic receptor takes about 0.15 millisecond. This leaves 0.30 to 3.80 milliseconds for other processes. A third process, called mobilization of the transmitter, is traditionally postulated as taking up the remaining time, but evidence suggests that the time is occupied at least partially by the opening of calcium channels to allow the entry of Ca2+ into the presynaptic terminal. Inactivation A series of nerve impulses arriving in rapid succession at the axon terminal is accurately reproduced as a series in the postsynaptic cell because the quanta of neurotransmitter released by each impulse are inactivated as soon as they stimulate the receptor proteins. Neurotransmitter inactivation is carried out by a combination of three processes. First, the neurotransmitter molecules simply diffuse out of the narrow synaptic cleft. Second, they are taken back into the presynaptic terminal by transmitter-sensitive transport molecules. Third, they are metabolized into inactive compounds by enzymes in the synaptic cleft. Ion transport As is stated above, the lipid bilayer of the neuronal membrane tends to repel electrically charged, hydrated ions, making virtually impossible the movement across the membrane that is necessary for the generation of nerve impulses. The transmembrane movement of ions is actually carried out by molecular mechanism—specifically, by protein molecules embedded in the lipid layers. One mechanism, the sodium-potassium pump, maintains the resting potential, and another, the various ion channels, helps create the action potential. Active transport: the sodium-potassium pump Since the plasma membrane of the neuron is highly permeable to K+ and slightly permeable to Na+, and since neither of these ions is in a state of equilibrium (Na+ being at higher concentration outside the cell than inside and K+ at higher concentration inside the cell), then a natural occurrence should be the diffusion of both ions down their electrochemical gradients—K+ out of the cell and Na+ into the cell. However, the concentrations of these ions are maintained at constant disequilibrium, indicating that there is a compensatory mechanism moving Na+ outward against its concentration gradient and K+ inward. This mechanism is the sodium-potassium pump. Actually a large protein molecule that traverses the plasma membrane of the neuron, the pump presents receptor areas to both the cytoplasm and the extracellular environment. That part of the molecule facing the cytoplasm has a high affinity for Na+ and a low affinity for K+, while that part facing the outside has a high affinity for K+ and a low affinity for Na+. Stimulated by the action of the ions on its receptors, the pump transports them in opposite directions against their concentration gradients. https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 15/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica If equal amounts of Na+ and K+ were transported across the membrane by the pump, the net charge transfer would be zero; there would be no net flow of current and no effect on the membrane potential. In fact, in many neurons three sodium ions are transported for every potassium ion; sometimes the ratio is three sodium ions for every two potassium ions, and in a few neurons it is two sodium ions for one potassium ion. This inequality of ionic transfer produces a net efflux of positive charge, maintaining a polarized membrane with the inner surface slightly negative in relation to the outer surface. Because it creates this potential difference across the membrane, the sodium-potassium pump is said to be electrogenic. The sodium-potassium pump carries out a form of active transport—that is, its pumping of ions against their gradients requires the addition of energy from an outside source. That source is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the principal energy-carrying molecule of the cell. ATP is formed by an inorganic phosphate molecule held in high-energy linkage with a molecule of adenosine diphosphate (ADP). When an enzyme in the pump, called sodium-potassium-ATPase, splits the phosphate from the ADP, the energy released powers the transport action of the pump. Passive transport: membrane channels The sodium-potassium pump sets the membrane potential of the neuron by keeping the concentrations of Na+ and K+ at constant disequilibrium. The sudden shift from a resting to an active state, when the neuron generates a nerve impulse, is caused by a sudden movement of ions across the membrane—specifically, a flux of Na+ into the cell. Given the relative impermeability of the plasma membrane to Na+, this influx itself implies a sudden change in permeability. Beginning in the 19th century, researchers puzzled over the mechanism by which this change could occur. The idea arose that there must exist pores, or channels, through which the ions could diffuse, passing the barrier posed by the lipid bilayer. However, for years only the gross currents accompanying ionic movement could be measured, and it was only by inference that the presence of membrane channels could be postulated. The breakthrough came in the 1970s and ’80s with the development of the patch-clamp technique, which enabled researchers to directly measure currents flowing across single ion channels in the membrane. The patch-clamp technique electrically isolates a small patch of neuron or muscle cell membrane by applying the tip of a micropipette filled with conducting solution to the membrane and forming a tight seal with it. As single channels in the patch undergo various transitional states between fully open and fully closed, the times of opening and closing are recorded and the amplitudes and duration of the currents are measured. Since the pioneering studies, the electrical and biochemical properties of certain channels have been characterized. Known as “voltage dependent” when activated by changes in the membrane potential and “neurotransmitter sensitive” when activated by neurotransmitter substances, these channels are protein structures that span the membrane from the extracellular space to the cytoplasm. They are thought to be cylindrical, with a hollow, water-filled pore wider than the ion passing through it except at one region called the selectivity filter. This filter makes each channel specific to one type of ion. Sodium channels Voltage-sensitive sodium channels have been characterized with respect to their subunit structure and their amino acid sequences. The principal protein component is a glycoprotein containing 1,820 amino acids. Four similar transmembrane domains, of about 300 amino acids each, surround a central aqueous pore through which the ions pass. The selectivity filter is a constriction of the channel ringed by negatively charged carbonyl oxygens, which repel anions but attract cations. Also within the channel are thought to be two types of charged particles forming the gates that control the diffusion of Na+. One gate closes at polarization and opens at depolarization; the other closes at depolarization. It is thought that the resting, activated, and inactivated states of the sodium channel are due to voltage-dependent conformational changes in the glycoprotein component. These changes result from effects of the electrical field on the charges and dipoles of the amino acids within the protein. With a large electrical field applied to it, the protein has been https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 16/17 2/12/25, 4:41 PM Nervous system - Signaling, Neurons, Impulses | Britannica observed to change its conformation from a stable, closed resting state to a stable, open state in which the net charge or the location of the charge on the protein is changed. Potassium channels There are several types of voltage-dependent potassium channels, each having its own physiological and pharmacological properties. A single neuron may contain more than one type of potassium channel. The best-known flow of K+ is the outward current following depolarization of the membrane. This occurs through the delayed rectifier channel (IDR), which, activated by the influx of Na+, counteracts the effect of that cation by allowing the discharge of K+. By repolarizing the membrane in this way, the IDR channel restricts the duration of the nerve impulse and participates in the regulation of repetitive firing of the neuron. Another outward K+ current, occurring with little delay after depolarization, is the A current. IA channels are opened by depolarization following hyperpolarization. By increasing the interval between action potentials, they help a neuron to fire repetitively at low frequencies. Another type of potassium channel, the IK(Ca) channel, is activated by high concentrations of intracellular Ca2+. The opening of these channels results in hyperpolarization of the membrane, so that they appear to slow the repetitive firing of nerve impulses. The IM channel is opened by depolarization but is deactivated only by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. This property may serve to regulate the sensitivity of neurons to synaptic input. A final type of potassium channel is the anomalous, or inward, rectifier channel (IIR). This channel closes with depolarization and opens with hyperpolarization. By allowing an unusual inward diffusion of K+, the IIR channel prolongs depolarization of the neuron and helps produce long-lasting nerve impulses. Calcium channels As with potassium channels, there is more than one type of calcium channel. The inward calcium current is slower than the sodium current. There are at least two types of current in certain neurons of the central nervous system—a long- lasting current activated at positive potential and a transient current activated at more negative potential. There are two corresponding types of calcium channels: a large conductance channel that gives rise to a long-lasting current at Load Next Page keyboard_arrow_down positive membrane potentials and a low conductance channel that gives rise to a transient current at more negative potentials. In some neurons a third channel current occurs that is transient and can only be activated at high negative potential. Anion channels There may be channels that pass anions such as Cl−, but their existence is difficult to prove. Single-channel recordings of cultured tissue have shown selective Cl− channels that are voltage dependent and of high conductance. Channels with lower conductance have been demonstrated in reconstituted artificial membranes as well as in neurons. https://www.britannica.com/science/nervous-system/Action-potential 17/17