Biology #1 PDF

Homework #1: Lions, Elephants, and dogs are all examples of the biological species concept where they can interbreed amongst their respective species and produce fertile, viable offspring under natural conditions. Lions interbreed with lion...

Homework #1: Lions, Elephants, and dogs are all examples of the biological species concept where they can interbreed amongst their respective species and produce fertile, viable offspring under natural conditions. Lions interbreed with lions and have shown to very rarely, through unnatural circumstances, breed with Tigers creating a hybrid species animal. But, this is not a natural occurrence therefore the side effects are that the offspring is infertile and rarely viable. Dogs interbreed with other dogs producing different breeds of dogs which inturn, makes them all part of the same species therefore enforcing the biology of species concept. Elephants are divided into different species like the African elephant, the asian elephant, etc. These are 2 different regions where natural breeding between the elephants is impossible. It violates the biology of species concept’s rules, they only interbreed within their own species and categorized as different species despite both essentially being elephants. ` Some species are based on morphology because they can’t be classified using the Biology of species concept. For example some species are asexual like some plants, Fungi, and other microorganisms. There are also some plants that occasionally undergo Hybridization under natural conditions creating a hybrid between two separate plant Species. This may be because they are now too far away from the other subspecies due to Traveling through different areas that they are never naturally going to be able to Interbreed with each other. They also, through evolution and adaptation with the current Habitat, have undergone changes that would be suitable for the terrains, climate, Other nuances of the specific habitat that they belong to now. Which is why they are Categorized by the area they are located in rather than a different name. A heterotroph is an organism that receives nutrients from the living or dead organisms They consume. An autotroph is an organism that uses energy sources to produce Nutrients from water, gasses, and/or minerals. A good example of heterotrophs Are humans and an example of autotrophs are most plants. a) Coral reefs have cleaning stations where large fish come to have external parasites removed by small fish and shrimp b) Trillium produces seeds that attract ants. The seeds are then gathered and dispersed by the ants. If the ants do not feed on the outer seed tissue the seeds can’t germinate and start the growing process. c) Hermit crabs use the shells of dead snails for a protective home  d) Some flower mites climb onto the bills of hummingbirds moving from flower to flower feeding on nectar. e) Certain species of ants live within the trunks of Cecropia trees. This gives them protection alongside a home. One way a species needs another species for existence is the issue of digestion. For example, humans host a large number of bacteria in our large intestine to produce vitamins that are absorbed into the circulatory system. Another way a species depends on another for survival is the need for food. Like Bone Worms feed on the bones of dead whales. Another way species need other species for existence is that some birds make nests out of sticks that are from various trees to help reproduce and sustain life. Finally, many species use other species to aid in protection like Certain species of ants live within the trunks of Cecropia trees. a) Biodiversity: Is the variety and diversity of all living things and their interactions within different ecosystems. b) The range of physical landscapes within different habitats c) The genetic variation of individuals within the same species a) We definitely would have a shortage of variations and the amount of different species of vegetation resulting in the loss of resources. I would also complicate the efforts to change food systems. b) We can not only have a loss of tourism, but we can also have invader species overwhelming the already decreasing amount of native species c) Can increase the mortality rate of the affected population. NOTES #1 1. Species Diversity: Species diversity is like a measure of how many different types of plants, animals, or other living things are in a particular area and how evenly they are spread out. It’s a combination of two ideas: a. Species richness (how many different species there are). b. Relative abundance (how evenly the individuals of those species are distributed). 2. Example: A forest with 10 species where each species has the same number of individuals is more diverse than a forest where one species dominates and the others are rare.  2. Species Richness: Species richness is simply the number of different species in an area. It doesn’t care about how many individuals there are of each species. Example: If you find 5 different types of fish in a pond, the species richness is 5, no matter if one type has 100 fish and another only has 1. 3. Relative Abundance: Relative abundance looks at how evenly the individuals of each species are distributed. It answers the question: Do some species have way more individuals than others? Example: If a garden has 10 roses, 10 tulips, and 10 daisies, the relative abundance is equal because all species have the same number of individuals. But if the garden has 25 roses, 4 tulips, and 1 daisy, the relative abundance is uneven. 3. Genetic Diversity: The total variety of genetic information contained within all individuals of a species, influencing their ability to adapt to environmental changes. 4. Genetic Continuity: The consistent preservation and transmission of genetic material across generations within a population. 5. Genetic Variation: The differences in DNA sequences among individuals within a species, which contribute to diversity and adaptability. 6. Ecosystem Diversity: The variety of different ecosystems within a specific area, including the diversity of habitats, communities, and ecological processes. 6 Kingdoms of Biology: Kingdom Animalia: Multicellular, Eukaryotic, Heterotrophic,Reproduces sexually. Kingdom Plantae: Multicellular, Eukaryotic, Autotrophic, asexual & sexual reproduction. Kingdom Fungi: Single and multicellular forms. Eukaryotic, Heterotrophic, asexual reproduction budding, and sexual reproduction by spores. Kingdom Protista: Single-celled, Eukaryotic, can be heterotrophic, autotrophic, or parasitic. Reproduces asexually by binary fission, spores, budding and sexually by conjugation. Kingdom Eubacteria: Single celled, Prokaryotic (no true nucleus or membrane-bound organelles), reproduce by binary fission. Kingdom Archaea: Single celled, Prokaryotic, Heterotrophic, Some are autotrophic, (produce own energy), Reproduce by binary fission (asexually) Binary Fission: Only used in prokaryotic bacteria, first the cell replicates the DNA, then Cytoplasmic membrane elongates, separating DNA molecules, Cell walls form and the Membrane folds in on itself, then the wall forms completely, finally they get split apart and Become daughter cells. This is basically cloning. Species: are all organisms capable of freely breeding naturally with each other. The offspring need to be viable and fertile. Hybridization: is a cross between two different species and it is relatively uncommon. It Is often seen with various plant species. Morphology: These are the physical traits and features to determine the specific species of the organism we are observing. The most successful ecosystems are those with the highest levels of biodiversity. Often, the ecosystems with the most biodiversity have little to no human corruption Or tampering. High biodiversity ecosystems would not be greatly affected if only One species goes extinct because of the sheer number of options. BIODIVERSITY Ecosystems, Genetic diversity, and species diversity are all interconnected in a sort of Web. Basically depending on the various species within that community interact with Each other, the diversity of different species within that community, and the genetic Variation of all the individuals within said species directly determine the density of the “Web” of biodiversity that is within the plotted community. TAXONOMY Taxonomy: Is the Classification (binomial nomenclature) of all organisms, both living and Fossil species. Another word for Taxonomy is systematics. Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) is the father of taxonomy and invented this binomial nomenclature system. For example: The binomial nomenclature for the Flemish Giant Rabbit is Oryctolagus cuniculus. For wolves, it’s Canis lupus. For Lions, it’s Pantera leo. For Humans, it’s Homo sapiens. Finally, for Bobcats, It’s Lynx rufus. Binomial Nomenclature is the scientific name for a certain species, but it’s also used as the universal name of said species. Many people refer to the same species with different names depending on the location. For example, Pumas are sometimes referred to as Ghost Cats. But the binomial nomenclature gives this species a universal name that anyone and everyone can use. For Pumas, its binomial nomenclature is Puma Concolor. BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE The formal 2 name-system of naming a species Let’s take humans for example, The binomial nomenclature for humans is Homo Sapiens. Homo is referred to as the Genus word which is always capitalized, and Sapiens is referred to as the species name which always comes after the genus name And is never capitalized. When typing the binomial nomenclature of a species, the Name is always typed in italics. When writing the name by hand, it is underlined. The Genus name can also be abbreviated by the first letter but the same can’t be done to the Species name. (eg. Lynx rufus can be abbreviated to L. rufus.) TAXON: is a category used to classify organisms. The 7 levels of categorization or the 7 taxons in traditional taxonomy are listed from Least to most specific. The order goes like this: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order. Family, Genus, Species. The species taxon is the most specific category any species can be Put in, for example, other than humans, there are no Homo sapiens on this planet becauseThat name belongs strictly to humans. The Taxa also works like this: if the Genus name is The same between 2 different species, the species are very related and any taxon Before the Genus category is the same. DICHOTOMOUS KEY: This is used in order to identify an organism, The user of the Dichotomous Key, is presented with a 2 statements and with answering Objectively based on visually noticeable traits of each item, the name of the organism will be revealed to them. This is based on The characteristics of the organism. Biological Classification: The systematic method of grouping organisms into biological categories based on physical and evolutionary relationships. Taxon: A category used to classify organisms. Kingdom: The highest level of taxonomic classification of the traditional linnaean system Of taxonomy. Botanist: a scientist that specializes in the study of plants. Also referred to as a plant Biologist. Genus: A taxonomic category that consists of similar species. The second most specific Taxonomic category and the first part of any organism’s scientific name. EVOLUTION: A scientific theory that describes changes in species over time and their Shared ancestry. Phylogeny: the study of evolutionary relatedness between and among species. Phylogenetic tree: The tree of life, a diagram depicting the evolutionary relationships With different species or groups. Clade: A taxonomic group that includes a single common ancestor and all its Descendants. The major drawbacks of Traditional taxonomy is that the system mainly used Morphological traits to identify and group species on the levels of Taxonomy. One drawback of the Phylogenetic tree is that it utilizes the evolutionary relatedness of different species.  PROKARYOTIC VS. EUKARYOTIC Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms, No Nucleus, No membrane bound organelles, Archea/bacteria, 1-5 micrometers, DNA floats in cytoplasm circular shape. Eukaryotes: Can be single celled or multicellular, Has Nucleus, Has membrane bound Organelles, Protista, Fungi, Plants, Animals. 10-100 micrometers, DNA located in Nucleus, linear shape. VIRUSES: Viruses are small non-living particles. A virus is made of genetic material (or nucleic acid) surrounded by a capsule of protein called a CAPSID. Viruses are super tiny, they are less than 0.1 micrometers and hundreds of thousands of viruses can fit inside a typical human cell. Viruses can’t grow or reproduce on their own and don’t produce or use energy, they don’t secrete waste, they are essentially packages of genetic instructions that can enter and take control of a cell. The genetic material is a piece of DNA or RNA that can be single stranded or double stranded, circular or linear. After a virus enters a host cell, the viral DNA (or RNA) takes over, making more copies of the virus in order to spread the infection. They only become active when their genetic material has taken over its host cell. There are 2 stages in the infectious cycle of a virus: lysis and lysogeny. Lysis will be called the lytic cycle and lysogeny is the lysogenic cycle. Lysis is when a cell ruptures and the newly cloned viruses are released from the host cell to go and infect other cells. The lysogenic cycle is when the virus stays within their host cell in a state of dormancy for many cell cycle generations. 4 steps to the Lytic cycle: attach: the virus attaches onto the host cell and injects its DNA into the cell cytoplasm; the entry of phage DNA into the host cell degrades the Host Cell's DNA. Synthesis: The synthesis of viral genomes and proteins. Assembly: replication of the phage is done within the cell. Release/Lysis: The phages rip out of the host cell, killing it, and go out to seek other host cells and repeat the same process. Lysogenic cycle: The viral DNA gets inserted into the cell chromosomes. The viral DNA lies dormant for many cycle generations and replicates its DNA along with the replication of the cell. When conditions are right, that's when the virus goes into the lytic cycle. Pandemic: A viral infection that is mass infecting the world and has the ability to great populations. Epidemic: A viral infection that is confined to a certain geographic location. Endemic: A viral infection that is typically present in a particular region. Kingdom Archaebacteria in detail: prokaryotes that are considered to represent the most ancient group of organisms still living. They often live in environments where other organisms could never survive. They are categorized by the absurd nature of their environments. Thermophiles: Thrive in extreme temperatures that can live up to 110 degrees celsius. Halophiles: Live in very salty water Methanogens: Live anaerobically (without the need for oxygen), these bacteria produce methane. Thermoacidophiles: Live under acidic conditions (PH less than 2). In kingdom Archaebacteria, cells are prokaryotic, cells contain no-membrane bound organelles, Cells have a single chromosome, cells reproduce asexually by binary fission. Kingdom Eubacteria in detail: This type of bacteria are grouped by their shape, mode of respiration and their mode of nutrition. Shape: Cocci: Spherical. — Diplococcus: two spherical cells together. — Streptococcus: chains of spherical cells. — Staphylococcus: clusters of spherical cells. — Bacilli: rod-shaped. — Spirilla: spiral shaped. Respiration: Obligate Aerobe: needs oxygen to survive Obligate Anaerobe: survive without oxygen. Facultative Anaerobe: Prefer environments with oxygen, but can survive without it. Nutrition Heterotrophs: Obtains energy from other living things. Saprophytes: Obtains nutrients from dead/decaying matter. Autotrophs: Produce own energy Pili: used to adhere to one another, or to substrate. (some Pili can transfer DNA for sexual reproduction). Nucleoid Region: Double stranded DNA in the form of a ring. (No true nuclei) Plasmids: similar rings of DNA, only a few genes. Capsule: sticky covering, which provides protection and helps bacteria adhere to one another or to a substrate. Cell wall: found between cytoplasmic membrane and capsule. Cytoplasmic membrane: surrounds cytoplasm Flagellum: used for locomotion of the cell. Ribosomes: protein synthesis. Gram Staining: Gram positive bacteria: they have a thick peptide layer, retain the crystal violet stain, and appear Purple when viewed under a microscope. Gram Negative Bacteria: Have a thin peptide layer and space surrounding it so the cell wall is more protected by an impermeable lipopolysaccharide layer. They take up the pink stain, and appear pink when viewed under a microscope. Reproduction & Growth of Eubacteria: Reproduce asexually: Binary Fission. Binary FIssion is necessary, because bacteria use diffusion to get food and resources inside them and waste outside of the cell. If they get too large, they will not have enough surface area on the cell membrane to service the volume of the cell. Bacteria can sexually reproduce through conjugation: one bacterium donates DNA to another through the pili (cytoplasmic bridge). 2 other ways bacteria can exchange genetic material are Transduction: DNA is transported from one bacterium to another by a virus. Bacteria can sometimes release DNA when they die and then the DNA gets picked up by another bacterium when they die. Helpful and Harmful Bacteria: 2 helpful bacteria and what they do: Bacteria of Decay: They cause dead animals and plants to rot and break down and return their minerals back to the Earth. They also cause the fertilizer that farmers use for plants to rot and give the minerals in it to the soil. Bacteria of Fermentation: They cause a chemical change in certain foods called fermentation. It helps break down the food in the intestines of humans. This enables the body to get the nutrients from the food that is eaten. Some of these bacteria help to change the juice in grapes into wine. Harmful bacteria: 2 harmful bacteria and what they do: Pneumonia Bacteria: These bacteria cause pneumonia — a disease that settles into the lungs that is very hard to fight off due to their strong capsules. Bacteria of Tuberculosis: These bacteria are deadly germs that cause tuberculosis — a disease that attacks the lungs and other organs of the body. Tuberculosis was once the main cause of death in the United States, today, there are still many cases of Tuberculosis, it is not quite as widespread. Bacterial Resistance: Happens when a random genetic mutation occurs in a bacterium. This happens during mistakes in reproduction and when exposed to antibiotics. The bacterium can be resistant to the antibiotic. Resistance means that bacteria are not affected by the antibiotic and can live under the presence of the drug. 3 ways humans can contribute to antibiotic resistance is through, misuse, overuse, agricultural practices, and poor infection control practices. Kingdom: Protista First Eukaryotes: Protists were the first eukaryotic organisms with a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Diversity: Most diverse kingdom of eukaryotes, with over 200,000 known species. Includes any eukaryotic species that doesn't fit into Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Eubacteria, or Archaea. Characteristics Variety: Protists can be unicellular or multicellular and exhibit a range of characteristics. Types: Can be animal-like, plant-like, or fungi-like. Nutrition: ○ Autotrophic (produce own energy) ○ Heterotrophic (consume other organisms) ○ Photosynthetic (use sunlight for energy) Groups and Examples Animal-Like Protists (Protozoans) Apicomplexa: Unicellular, parasites (e.g., Plasmodium - malaria). Ciliates: Unicellular, move with cilia (e.g., Paramecium). Amoebas: Unicellular, move using pseudopods (e.g., Acanthamoeba). Plant-Like Protists Euglenoids: Unicellular, 2 flagella (e.g., Euglena).  Diatoms: Unicellular, glide, important food source in aquatic ecosystems. Red Algae: Multicellular, cellulose cell walls (e.g., laver used in sushi). Fungi-Like Protists Slime Molds: Unicellular and multicellular, found in moist habitats (e.g., Myxomycetes). Reproduction Unicellular Protists: Reproduce asexually (binary fission) and sexually (conjugation). Multicellular Protists: Complex life cycles, may involve alternation of generations with both asexual and sexual reproduction stages. Key Terms Gametophyte: A haploid organism producing haploid sex cells. Kingdom: Fungi Importance of Fungi Decomposers: Major role in nutrient cycling on Earth, alongside bacteria. Diseases: Some fungi cause animal diseases (e.g., athlete’s foot) and plant diseases (e.g., apple scab). Crop Loss: Annually, 10-50% of the world’s fruit harvest is destroyed by fungi. Human Uses Food: Mushrooms, truffles. Production: Bread, soy sauce, blue cheese, beer, and wine. Medicines: Antibiotic penicillin, antirejection drug cyclosporine. Classification and Phylogeny Not Plants: While stationary, multicellular, eukaryotic, and have cell walls, fungi are distinct: ○ Non-photosynthetic: Not autotrophic. ○ Different Cell Structure: Cell walls made of chitin, unlike plant cellulose. ○ Reproductive Methods: Not seed-based; no roots. More closely related to animals. Major Fungal Phyla  1. Chytridiomycota: Swimming spores; single/multicellular. 2. Zygomycota: Bread/fruit molds; many are soil fungi and insect parasites. 3. Glomeromycota: Form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. 4. Ascomycota: Useful to humans (beer/wine); includes yeasts and some plant pathogens. 5. Basidiomycota: Mostly decomposers; includes mushrooms and truffles. Characteristics Mycelium: Main body is a mesh-like network of filaments; absorbs nutrients externally. Hyphae: Microscopic filaments, tubular, with cell walls made of chitin; can be compartmentalized by septa. Heterotrophic: Obtain energy from other organisms through external digestion (release enzymes and absorb nutrients). Lifecycle Reproduction: Varies by species; can reproduce asexually (budding) or sexually (spores). Spores: Single-celled, haploid, can form new individuals; one mushroom can produce millions of spores rapidly. Experiment Bread Mold Growth: Explore factors affecting mold growth, such as light, moisture, and air conditions, using a piece of bread in a labeled Ziploc bag. Kingdom: Plantae Importance of Plants Producers: Primary food source for heterotrophic species. Habitat: Provide nesting sites for animals (e.g., birds, squirrels). Medicine: Source of pharmaceuticals (e.g., willow bark for aspirin). Clothing: Used in textile production (e.g., cotton). Lumber: Essential for construction and building materials. Paper: Important for various uses. Threats to Plants Extinction Risk: Many species are endangered due to: ○ Habitat destruction ○ Invasive species ○ Pollution ○ Climate change  At-Risk Species: Over 70 species in Ontario are considered at-risk. Characteristics of Plants Multicellular: Eukaryotic organisms. Photosynthetic: Utilize sunlight for energy. Cell Walls: Composed of cellulose. Sessile: Cannot move; adapted to terrestrial environments (varying climates). Evolution: Thought to have evolved from charophytes (green algae). Plant Categories 1. Mosses: Bryophytes (e.g., mosses, liverworts, hornworts). 2. Ferns: Lycophytes & Pterophytes. 3. Conifers: Gymnosperms. 4. Flowering Plants: Angiosperms. Life Cycle: Alternation of Generations Diploid (2n): Sporophyte stage, produces spores via meiosis. Haploid (n): Gametophyte stage, produces gametes. Process: 1. Sporophyte produces spores. 2. Spores develop into gametophytes. 3. Gametophytes produce gametes. 4. Fertilization forms a diploid zygote, which grows into a new sporophyte. Types of Plants 1. Mosses (Bryophytes) Small, seedless, non-vascular. Depend on osmosis/diffusion for nutrient uptake. Require moist environments for reproduction. 2. Ferns (Lycophytes & Pterophytes) Seedless, vascular plants; oldest known vascular plants. Have roots (rhizomes) and leaves (fronds). Reproduce sexually via spores. 3. Conifers (Gymnosperms) Vascular, produce naked seeds in cones. Needles with waxy cuticle for protection. Male cones produce pollen; female cones contain ovules.  Long germination period. 4. Flowering Plants (Angiosperms) Largest group of plants produce flowers and seeds enclosed in fruit. Have male and female reproductive parts. Two categories: monocots (one seed leaf) and dicots (two seed leaves). Efficient in gamete transport and seed dispersal. Pollination Methods: ○ Wind: Small, inconspicuous flowers (e.g., grasses). ○ Animals: Colorful, fragrant flowers that attract pollinators (e.g., birds, bees). ○ Flowers are often shaped to facilitate specific pollinators, enhancing reproductive success. Kingdom: Animalia Importance of Animals Biodiversity: Contribute to ecosystem diversity and stability. Food Source: Serve as a primary food source for many organisms, including humans. Pollination: Many species are essential for the pollination of plants. Ecosystem Roles: Serve as predators, prey, and decomposers, maintaining ecological balance. Cultural and Economic Value: Animals are integral to human culture, agriculture, and economies. Characteristics of Animals Multicellular: Composed of multiple cells. Eukaryotic: Cells have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Heterotrophic: Obtain energy by consuming other organisms. No Cell Walls: Unlike plants and fungi, animal cells lack rigid cell walls. Motility: Most animals have the ability to move at some stage of their life cycle. Reproduction: Primarily sexual reproduction, though some can reproduce asexually. Major Animal Groups 1. Invertebrates: Animals without a backbone (e.g., insects, mollusks, arthropods). ○ Porifera: Sponges, simple structure, filter feeders. ○ Cnidaria: Jellyfish, corals, have stinging cells (nematocysts). ○ Annelida: Segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches.  ○ Mollusca: Soft-bodied animals (e.g., snails, octopuses), often with shells. ○ Arthropoda: Insects, crustaceans, spiders; characterized by an exoskeleton. 2. Vertebrates: Animals with a backbone (e.g., fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals). ○ Fish: Gills for breathing, fins for swimming (e.g., bony and cartilaginous fish). ○ Amphibians: Dual life stages (aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults); skin must remain moist (e.g., frogs, salamanders). ○ Reptiles: Scaled skin, lay eggs on land (e.g., snakes, lizards, turtles). ○ Birds: Feathers, beaks, and lay hard-shelled eggs; adapted for flight. ○ Mammals: Hair or fur, mammary glands for feeding young, warm-blooded. Body Symmetry Radial Symmetry: Body parts arranged around a central axis (e.g., jellyfish). Bilateral Symmetry: Left and right sides are mirror images (e.g., humans, most animals). Developmental Stages Embryonic Development: Many animals undergo specific stages, including zygote, blastula, and gastrula. Metamorphosis: Some species experience significant changes during development (e.g., caterpillar to butterfly). Adaptations Physical Adaptations: Features that enhance survival (e.g., camouflage, specialized limbs). Behavioral Adaptations: Actions that improve survival and reproduction (e.g., migration, social behavior). Ecological Roles Predators and Prey: Animals play critical roles in food webs and ecological interactions. Symbiotic Relationships: Many animals engage in mutualism, commensalism, or parasitism, affecting their ecosystems and relationships with other species. Understanding these fundamentals about the animal kingdom helps appreciate the diversity and complexity of life on Earth.