Biological Development PDF

Human Development  Studying Development  Physical Development and Stages of Maturation  Cognitive and Linguistic Development  Social and Moral Development Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology is the study of age-related changes in physical characteristics, in...

Human Development  Studying Development  Physical Development and Stages of Maturation  Cognitive and Linguistic Development  Social and Moral Development Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology is the study of age-related changes in physical characteristics, in behaviour and mental processes.... from the time of conception to death The ‘nature position’ argues that human development is governed by a genetically programmed process known as ‘maturation’ Developmental scientists have argued that ‘critical periods’ speak of (1) optimal times.... (2) when organisms are especially sensitive to environmental experiences.... (3) These specific evens shape the capacity for future development Continuity or Stages of Development? Stage theorists argue that there are fairly discrete developmental steps.... Some of these periods encompass little change and others of rapid change Some psychologists argue for more of a continuous notion of development........ suggesting that knowledge, skills and abilities are added at a relatively steady or uniform pace Hence, the continuity model suggests that an adult’s cognition and intelligence differ quantitatively from those of a child That is, adults simply have more of certain skills (e.g. math ability, verbal skills) than children do Stability or Change? As is true for the nature/nurture debate, discussions about continuity versus stages and stability versus change are not ‘either-or’ issues Developmental scientists have determined that physical and motor skills are primarily continuous in nature.... While cognitive skills are more likely to develop in discrete stages In a similar way, some characteristics/ traits are thought to be more stable across the lifespan, While others vary greatly from period to period Research Approaches There are two major research methods used in developmental psychology Cross-sectional studies consider individuals from a number of age groups (e.g. ages 20, 40, and 60) at one point in time These studies provide information about age differences Longitudinal studies follow a single individual or a group of same-aged individuals over an extended time span These studies give us information about changes with age Cohort Effects Fig 9.2 (p. 243) observes that cross-sectional studies have shown that reasoning and intelligence reach their peak by age 25 years and then gradually decline over the years By contrast, longitudinal studies have shown increases in reasoning and intelligence into the mid-50s - - and that a marked decline in these abilities does not begin until around age 60 years These varying results are thought to be due to the ‘cohort effect’ That is, in cross-sectional studies differences related to the time span (or history) of the age groups studied may be confused with genuine age-related differences Cohort effects are entangled with ‘true’ age effects.... Because different cohorts (or age groups) grow up in different historical periods........ findings obtained in studies may not apply to those growing up at different points in time Researchers tend to agree that in cross- sectional studies, true age effects and cohort effects can become very confused Additional disadvantages of cross- sectional studies include their expense in (time and money) and the fact that results are of limited generalizability The importance of sociocultural context... The cohort effect brings home the fact that culture and environment may be very powerful determinants of development When children grow up in the highly individualistic and competitive societies of western cultures........ they are likely to demonstrate a range of character traits that are different from children raised in more of a collectivist culture, e.g. those found in Africa, Asia, or in Latin America  Physical Development Prenatal development includes 3 stages: 1. Germinal period 2. Embryonic period 3. Fetal period Prenatal birth (and that of the first few years after birth) is called ‘cephalocaudal’, i.e. with head and upper body developing before the lower body The placenta nourishes the fetus and eliminates toxins and wastes It also prevents some harmful substances from crossing into the fetus Still, there are some substances and hazards that are able to cross the placental barrier For example: x-rays, drugs and alcohol, some diseases (like rubella, German measles) Adverse prenatal influences.... Adverse prenatal influences usually do the most harm during the first three months of pregnancy, known as a ‘critical period’ in development Almost everything eaten/ingested can cross the placental barrier, including both legal and illicit drugs Nicotine and alcohol are called ‘teratogens’ and of course they do damage to the unborn infant More than 5% of infants born in Canada have been exposed prenatally to 10 or more cigarettes per day Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS).... Mothers who smoke tobacco during pregnancy demonstrate the following: Higher rates of premature birth Lower birth-weight infants Higher rates of fetal death Children with increased behavioural abnormalities Children with greater likelihood of cognitive problems Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is a birth risk for 15% of Canadian infants whose mothers report consuming alcohol during pregnancy Between 1 to 3 per 1000 infants in Canada are born with FAS Health problems associated with alcohol intake.... A much higher number of infants display some, but not all, of the features of FAS This is referred to as ‘Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder’ (FASD) The Public Health Agency of Canada (2007) advises that there is no known safe amount of alcohol intake during pregnancy The Canadian Pediatric Society (2009) notes that the greater the amount of alcohol consumed during pregnancy, the greater the risk of health problems Brain Development The brain and nervous system grow faster than any other body parts during prenatal development and the first two years of life At birth the infant’s newborn brain is 1/4 its adult size By age six years the child’s brain is already 9/10 its full adult weight Learning and brain development are correlational; increased learning occurs as a result of the growth of individual neurons....... Also as a result of increased numbers of axons and dendrites, and their inter- connections Motor Development Movement skills are seen to emerge in an orderly way as the infant develops voluntary (vs. reflex) actions An example of a naturally occurring reflex is that of the turning of the infant’s head and opening of its mouth when the cheek is touched This contrasts with the maturational sequence of voluntary movements that occurs in all infants; examples include: Rolling over at 2.8 months Sitting alone at 5.5 months Standing at 11.5 months Walking up steps at 17.1 months Sensory & Perceptual Development Research studies have demonstrated that the senses develop very early in life For example, newborn infants can usually smell most odours and distinguish between flavours – sweet, salty, and bitter Sensitivity to touch and pain are known to be highly developed at birth.... while vision is poorly developed at birth Hearing is also thought to be highly acute, and it is thought that the fetus can even hear sounds outside the mother’s body  Fetal learning (?).... Studies on possible fetal learning have found that infants easily recognize their mother’s voice (over that of a stranger) Another study has shown that infants prefer stories read to them while still developing in the womb Such studies require creative ways to measure perceptual preferences and learning Studies by Robert Fantz (1956, 1963) required the design of a ‘looking chamber’ to measure how long infants look at visual stimuli He found that infants prefer complex over simple patterns; they also prefer complex faces over simple faces Adolescence and puberty Adolescence is defined as the period of psychological development that occurs between childhood and adulthood In North America adolescence corresponds to puberty and the teenage years This period of adolescence/puberty varies across countries/cultures The most dramatic sign of puberty is the ‘growth spurt’ = characterized by marked increases in height, weight, and skeletal growth........ As well as significant changes in the reproductive structures and sexual characteristics Post-pubertal physical changes.... The complex physical changes that occur during puberty result from hormones secreted by the ovaries and testes, as well as the (both located in the brain hypothalamus and pituitary gland Age-related physical changes are much less dramatic after puberty They are usually confined to small changes in height and in muscle development in the late teens and early 20s For women a second important milestone occurs between the ages of 45 and 55, i.e. menopause = cessation of the menstrual cycle Myths associated with menopause Studies have shown that women in cultures that devalue aging are more likely to experience anxiety and depression with menopause A large-scale American study demonstrated that many menopausal women felt relieved that their periods had stopped; more than one-half did not experience hot flashes The popular belief that menopause causes serious mood swings, depression, and other adverse effects is not supported by the research When problems do arise they are more likely to be associated with the social devaluation of aging in women, and not the physical process of menopause itself The male climacteric While youthfulness is thought to be less important to men, a number of physical changes can also lead to feelings of depression and self-doubt As early as middle adulthood men start to experience gradual declines in the production of sperm and testosterone........ and this is associated with weight gain, lack of sexual responsiveness, loss of, etc. muscle strength, loss/greying of hair These changes are known as the ‘male climacteric’.... Aging and internal changes; decline in sensory receptors..... The major changes of middle-age and beyond are those associated with the heart and arteries... This includes a decrease in cardiac output (decreased volume of blood pumped each minute) along with an increase in blood pressure (thickening/stiffening of arterial walls) Visual acuity declines, along with depth perception Hearing acuity also declines, especially for high frequencies Smell becomes less sensitive Cognitive changes; Alzheimer’s disease... There has been a lot of misunderstanding about changes in the brain and cognition with age... For example, the notion that dementia is a necessary part of aging.... Degenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s disease are not a normal part of aging Normal forgetfulness is influenced by things like worry/preoccupation and distractibility, depression, etc.... Advances in neurology/neuropsychology support notions of ‘neuroplasticity’, i.e. the fact that neuronal growth and brain development occur in response to learning and mental stimulation.... right through old age....  Speed of processing.... Normal aging does seem to take its toll on speed of cognitive processing.... For example, if memory can be likened to retrieving information from filing cabinets.... then, it may take older individuals longer to conduct the filing of information and to retrieve that information from memory Studies demonstrate that although mental speed declines with age, general information processing and memory efficiency remain largely unaffected by the aging process  Primary and secondary aging.... Secondary aging refers to changes that result from disease, neglect, or lack of use Primary aging refers to the gradual, age- related changes in both physical and mental processes that we can do little to change The two main theories regarding primary aging/death are: (1) programmed theory, and (2) damage theory (1) Programmed theory highlights the likelihood that aging is genetically controlled Programmed theory; Damage theory Programmed theory argues that once conception occurs the program for aging and death have been set and begin to run In his lab, researcher Leonard Hayflick (1977, 1996) observed that human cells have a definite lifespan.... i.e., after dividing or doubling about 50 times, lab-cultured cells stopped dividing.... they reached the ‘Hayflick limit’ (2) Damage theory emphasises the likelihood that accumulated damage to cells and organs over the years lead to their eventual death.... Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) forwarded a theory that emphasized qualitative differences in the ways that children and adults operate intellectually That is, the infant begins at a ‘cognitively primitive’ level and intellectual growth progresses in distinct stages Although Piaget initiated his theory in the 1920s it remains a significant input to the area of current cognitive psychology Three major concepts or constructs in Piaget’s theory are: (1) schemas, (2) assimilation, and (3) accommodation Cognitive schemas (1) Schemas are cognitive structures or patterns that organize concepts and ideas and help us carry out actions and interactions.... Schemas are thought to be the basic ‘building blocks’ of intellect They can be described as ‘mental frameworks’ or as a type of ‘blueprint’ or ‘architect’s drawing’... that helps us to understand our world and navigate within it Hence, schemas can be seen as a type of tool and they continue to develop and to change throughout one’s lifetime Assimilation; accommodation Cognitive schemas grow and change over time, by the mechanisms of assimilation and accommodation (2) Assimilation refers to the process of absorbing new information into schemas that already exist in the individuals thoughts/cognitive structures (3) Accommodation occurs when new information cannot be easily absorbed into existing schemas....... for this reason, either new schemas are formulated... or old schemas are changed or ‘reconstructed’ to create a better fit with the new information..... Sensorimotor stage According to Piaget the first stage of cognitive development is that of the sensorimotor stage, i.e. lasting from birth until the acquisition of language (about 2 years of age) During this stage children explore their world primarily through the senses and through motor activities.... An important achievement in this stage is ‘object permanence’ = the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.... An example is the game of ‘peekaboo’, where the infant recognizes that others exist even though they are hidden away Preoperational stage The Preoperational stage occurs (roughly) between ages 2 to 7 years This is a period of significant and rapid language development, where the child begins to think in symbolic terms.... Hence, words and symbols are used to represent concepts.... Three qualities characterize this stage: – concepts are not yet ‘operational’, i.e. the child does not possess reversible mental processes Preoperational stage (continued) – An example of the absence of reversible mental processes is: If a preoperational child is asked whether he has a brother, he can easily respond ‘yes’ – BUT, if you then ask ‘does your brother have a brother?’, he will answer ‘NO’ – Thinking during this stage is also ‘egocentric’, i.e. children at this stage have difficulty understanding that there are views other than their own – Hence, egocentrism refers to the limited ability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and that of another – Because of their egocentrism, pre-operational children assume that others see, hear, feel, and think in exactly the same way as they do Animism in the preoperational stage.... Because children in the pre-operational stage think that the world operates around them, they have difficulty distinguishing reality from their own thoughts ‘Animism’ refers to the belief that all things are living (or animated) Hence, preoperational children believe that objects like trees, toys, clouds, etc, have feelings, intentions and ‘human’ motives Piaget and other cognitive scientists agree that children can be taught how to use various operations and to work away from egocentrism and animistic thinking At the same time it is thought that children should grow and develop at their own pace, i.e. with minimal interference from adults Concrete Operational Stage At around age 7 years children enter the ‘concrete operational stage’, where they are now able to perform cognitive operations on concrete objects For example, ‘conservation’ refers to the recognition that volume remains constant despite changes in outward appearance of an object This requires grasping the concept of ‘reversibility’ and change.... Abstract thinking is not yet present Formal Operational Stage Beginning around age 11 years, the formal operational stage allows children to extend cognitive operations beyond concrete objects..... That is, they are able to apply cognitive operations to theoretical and abstract concepts One form of abstract thought is that of ‘hypothetical’ thinking, e.g. “what if” Adolescents are able to formulate and test complex concepts This includes developing well-reasoned arguments based on hypothetical concepts and logical processes Challenges with the concrete operational stage Along with the benefits of the concrete operational style come a number of problems Adolescents often suffer from a type of egocentrism that is different from the self- centred views of the preoperational child Although aware that people have different views and opinions, adolescents still fail to differentiate their own thinking from that of others  The personal fable leads adolescents to believe that their own insights or problems cannot be understood by others (lack of sympathy)  Risky behaviours can result from the personal fable – i.e. a sense of uniqueness, invulnerability and/or immortality in the teenager suggest that they are ‘invincible’ ‘Personal fable’ and the prefrontal cortex.... Brain imaging studies have demonstrated that the adolescent brain often suffers from late development in an area called the prefrontal cortex The prefrontal cortex is responsible for ‘higher’ cognitive processes like planning, organization and controlling emotions This knowledge provides a biological basis for the egocentrism and risk-taking behaviours demonstrated with the ‘personal fable’ ‘Imaginary audience’.... Often times the adolescent is ‘self-centred’ or egocentric in the sense that they believe they are at the centre of others’ thoughts and attentions.... When entering a room, the teenager may feel that (literally) everyone is watching them Elkind (2007) has referred to this as the ‘imaginary audience’ These two forms of egocentrism tend to decrease during later stages of the formal operational stage  Imaginary audience = inability to differentiate the self from others  Personal fable = excessive differentiation of self from others Critique of Piaget’s theory Despite its significant impact on the field of cognitive psychology, Piaget’s theory has received a number of criticisms (1) Underestimated abilities: current research demonstrates that Piaget may have underestimated a number of infant capacities and behaviours For example, infants understand how objects move and recognize that objects exist even when screened from view Infants also demonstrate different types of ‘non-egocentric’ behaviours occur, e.g. an infant’s cry when hearing the cry of another The role of heredity and formal education.... (2) Underestimating the role of heredity and cultural differences:.... recent advances in understanding the role of hereditary influences on cognitive abilities has exploded... Formal education and cultural experiences are now also recognized as playing a very large role in cognitive development (i.e. more than in Piaget’s time) Despite criticisms, Piaget’s contributions to cognitive psychology have been likened to “the impact of Shakespeare on English literature”  Social and Moral Development Attachment theory refers to the emotional or affectional bonds that develop between infants and their primary caregivers The work of John Bowlby (1969, 1989, 2000) is often cited by nativists given his view that infants are biologically equipped with behaviours that elicit instinctive nurturing responses in others, e.g.:  crying, clinging, smiling (verbal, non- verbal)  crawling, walking (following the caregiver)  the notion of ‘imprinting’ by Konrad Lorenz also supports a biological argument for attachment (Fig 10.1, p. 270) What if a child does not form an attachment? Research has shown that infants raised in impersonal settings (e.g. institutions like orphanages) do not receive the levels of stimulation and affection they need Those raised in abusive settings also suffer from a number of problems, e.g.:  They seldom cry, coo, or babble  Adopt a rigid posture when picked up  They have few language skills  Some are socially withdrawn  Some are depressed and/or anxious  Some have an insatiable need for touching and affection  Suffer from physical and intellectual deficits  Demonstrate greater susceptibility to infection and illness (can lead to death)  Demonstrate rocking and self-stimulation  Parenting styles and social behaviours in kids.... Luckily, most children are not exposed to the extremes of institutions or to abuse Nevertheless, researchers (such as Mary Ainsworth) have found that the typical levels of attachment between infants and their mothers vary – and that these differences bring about differences in long-term behaviours Ainsworth et al (1978) used ‘the strange situation’ to assess the social behaviours of children apart from their mothers These researchers found that social behaviours differed between those children who were securely attached, avoidant, or anxious/ ambivalent What were the findings of Ainsworth et al (1978) concerning parenting styles and their relationship to social behaviours in children?  Child-rearing methods and children.... Studies have extended the notion of ‘parenting styles’ to specific methods of child-rearing.... Baumrind (1980, 1995) found that parenting styles could be divided into three major patterns: 1. Permissive = parents make few demands, provide little structure or monitoring; may be emotionally connected or rejecting 2. Authoritarian = high control, low warmth, likely to be rigid and punitive 3. Authoritative = firm limits imposed, likely highly involved, tender and supportive Studies have show that these parenting styles are linked to different behaviours in kids, e.g. permissive (and warm) parenting can lead to impulsive and disrespectful patterns;......... while authoritative parenting leads to self- controlled and independent, high-achieving, and socially competent patterns (see 10.1, page 273)  Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Part of psychological development is that of developing a sense of ‘right and wrong’ Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) was one of the most influential theorists in moral development He developed ‘moral stories (dilemmas)’ and presented them to people of all ages (1964, 1984) Based on his research Kohlberg proposed three broad levels of moral reasoning (each composed to two distinct stages): 1. Pre-conventional 2. Conventional, and 3. Post-conventional Pre-conventional moral judgement.... (1) Pre-conventional moral judgement is essentially self-centred (egocentric) ‘Right’ and ‘wrong’ depend on what the individual finds personally satisfying or can get away with.... Hence, ‘moral understanding’ is based on external rewards and punishments (‘extrinsic’) – and the exchange of favours with others..... This level is termed ‘pre-conventional’ because the individual has not yet accepted society’s (conventional) rules for behaviours and decision-making  Conventional level of Moral Development.... (2) Kohlberg’s second stage of moral development, the Conventional level, is typically reached by the time of adolescence and continues into young adulthood Here, moral evaluations are typically consistent with conventional rules of society Hence, the concern is with being ‘other- centred’ rather than self-centred (egocentric) The adolescent/young adult accepts and understands that rules and guidelines form part of community living – that they help to ensure social order and the notion of ‘collective good’  Post-conventional Level of Moral Development (3) According to Kohlberg’s theory the post- conventional level sees adults develop their own personal standards for right and wrong Abstract principles and values are used to assess situations and social/individual dilemmas An example might be a 20-year-old who believes that the ‘discovery’ and settlement of North America by Europeans was basically immoral....... that is, it involved theft of land and culture from native or endogenous inhabitants of the land Here, the individual may develop a sense that laws can legitimately be disobeyed if they fail to express the will of the majority or if they work against social values and progress Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Personality Development Erik Erikson (1902-1994) developed a discrete- stage theory of personality development Erikson identified eight (8) ‘psychosocial stages’ of social development That is, each stage is thought to be marked or identified by a specific type of conflict related to development Hence, the name given to each stage points to the specific developmental crisis identified in that stage, along with two possible outcomes Erikson’s belief was that with successful negotiation of these developmental crises the individual’s growth progressed in a healthy way  Development continues past adolescence.... Stage 1 involves learning to trust or to mistrust caregivers during the first year of life; this basic attitude is then extended to the wider social world Stage 2 (ages 1-3) involves the development of autonomy or independence in the toddler; When caregivers encourage development of independence the child learns how to be autonomous rather than full of guilt and shame Stage 3 in Erikson’s theory argues that pre- schoolers (ages 3-6) are engaged in developing.... initiative versus guilt.... the need is to initiate activities and to develop confidence in self and society  Psychosocial crises contribute to personality Stage 4 (ages 6-12) involves elementary school age children in learning productive life- skills, along with a sense of confidence (industry) and personal pride Those children who have difficulties in stage 4 feel inadequate and inferior Stage 5 (ages 12-20) involves the adolescent in developing a coherent and stable sense of self or identity; if not the teen will experience an identity crisis and role confusion Stage 6 sees the young adult forming lasting and meaningful relationships or intimacy; failure to do so results in lack of engagement or in psychological isolation Middle and later adulthood lead to self-acceptance (?) Erikson’s seventh stage occurs in middle adulthood and is marked by the need to provide care and nurturing to the younger generation Failure to meet this developmental challenge results in a personality marked by stagnation and self-indulgence Stage 8 sees older adults reflect and evaluate their past life and this hopefully leads to feelings of self-acceptance and satisfaction Alternatively, the individual experiences deeps feelings of regret and despair Gender Role Development By the age of two years children are well aware of ‘gender roles’ That is, boys ‘should’ be strong, aggressive, independent, dominant and achieving While girls ‘should’ be soft, dependent, passive, emotional, and interested in children Most developmental research emphasizes two major theories of gender role development: (1) social learning theory, and (2) cognitive developmental theory Given similarities in gender roles across cultures and countries, some degree of biology and genetics are also likely to play a role Social learning of what it means to be male or female (1) Social learning theorists focus on the importance of the immediate situation and observable behaviours in gender role development Hence, boys learn to be ‘masculine’ and girls to be ‘feminine’ by (i) the presence of rewards and punishments for specific behaviours....... and (ii) they learn by watching and imitating the behaviour of others, especially the same-sexed parent Parents and teachers, as well as friends and peers, reward and punish behaviours according to traditional gender role expectations In general there is much more tolerance of deviation in girls than in boys Traditional masculine traits.... A research study by Williams & Best (1990) asked college students in 14 different countries to describe their ‘current self’ and their ‘ideal self’ For both male and female subjects their ideal self-descriptions contained more masculine than feminine qualities In general, research has shown that traditional masculine characteristics (e.g. analytical thinking, independence) are more highly valued than traditional female traits (emotional sensitivity, cheerfulness, etc) For example (Johnson et al, 2008), in business roles a good managers are still perceived as having mainly masculine traits Work and retirement Studies support the likelihood that in western cultures great importance is given to careers that provide high levels of income Another primary goal of younger adults is that of combining successful family life with work roles, hence pursuing ‘the good life’.... Vocational assessments based on the work of John Holland’s ‘personality-fit’ theory emphasize the need to match the ‘individualistic personality’ with career choice........ i.e., in order to achieve job success and personal satisfaction  Activity theory of aging... Even though work and career form a big part of life and self-identity in North American life, most people live long enough to enter an active period of retirement According to the ‘activity theory of aging’, successful aging is most strongly related to ‘a full and active commitment to life’ This commitment is related to presence of the following factors in the individual’s life: – Good health – Sense of control over one’s life – Presence of social supports, – Participation in community services and in social activities  Negative impacts of ageism on successful aging Hence, ‘disengagement theory’ has been displaced or given way to new research and theory on successful aging (Disengagement theory argued that aging entailed a ‘natural’ and ‘graceful’ withdrawal from life) Despite the losses and other stresses associated with aging, the ‘newer’ ideas of engagement and activity prevail For example, even though the total number of social contacts may diminish, older adults continue to develop a smaller circle of ‘emotionally relevant’ interactions One of the greatest stresses for older adults in American cultures is that of ‘ageism’ For example, in cultures where youth, speed, and accomplishments are strongly emphasized, loss or decline in these areas is deeply feared and stigmatized Death and Dying: The Final Developmental Challenge We come to understand death in developmental stages Preschoolers understand that death means an end to certain activities, but it is not until around age 7 years that they understand fully what death entails As adults we understand three inter-related concepts concerning death: 1. Permanence: living things cannot come back to life 2. Universality: all living things eventually die 3. Non-functionality: all the processes and functions of life end with death (e.g. thought, movement, breathing, digestion, etc) While permanence is the most easily understood concept, universality comes later, and comprehension of non- functionality occuring around age 7 years Associated misunderstandings, fears, and stigmas There are many misunderstandings and stigmas associated with death and dying For example, parents may fear that discussing death with children and adolescents will make them fearful and anxious In fact, studies demonstrate that open and honest discussions of death tend to make for easier acceptance (e.g. Corr et al, 2009; Kastenbaum, 2007). Since the 1990s, the ‘right-to-die’ movement and ‘death-with-dignity’ advocates have brought discussions of death out into the open... this has resulted in less stigma Death is seen as our last developmental challenge Mental health professionals underline the fact that an understanding of the psychological processes of death and dying can play an important role in good emotional adjustment Despite the fact that different cultures interpret and respond to death in different ways... In a developmental perspective dying is seen as the last major crisis that we face Elisabeth Kubler-Ross was one of the first to develop a stage theory of psychological adjustment in dying  Five sequential steps = ?? Kubler-Ross (1983, 1997, 1999) suggested that most people go through five sequential stages when facing death: 1. Denial of the terminal condition: “this can’t be true” 2. Anger – “Why me?” , “This isn’t fair” 3. Bargaining – “If you let me live I promise to make up for my past mistakes” 4. Depression - “I’m losing everything, there is no hope” 5. Acceptance – “I’ve accepted that my time is near” Some theorists argue that there is no scientific proof for the five-stage theory put forward by Kubler-Ross Certainly, Kubler-Ross herself argues that not everyone passes through the stages in the same way Thanatology has given rise to the hospice movement... Despite criticisms, the theory of Kubler- Ross has been beneficial in stimulating dialogue in the field of death-and-dying This field has come to be known as that of ‘thanatology’ = the study of death and dying Research by thanatologists has prompted the ‘hospice movement’, i.e. special facilities and trained staff who help the dying to maintain their dignity and to lessen their suffering Canadian health service providers have been at the leading edge in the hospice movement, including provision of such care for the socially marginalized and homeless  WHAT ARE YOUR VIEWS ON AGING?