BIOL 2107 - Biology: The Study of Life (PDF)

Because learning changes everything. ® Biology Sylvia S. Mader...

Because learning changes everything. ® Biology Sylvia S. Mader Michael Windelspecht Chapter 1 Biology: The Study of Life Lecture Outline See separate FlexArt PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  What do you understand by Biology? Why it is important to study living things? The investigation of living things leads to unforeseen discoveries The organisms grow under the earth crust – how they function? Alligators live in the dirtiest water – how they defend from bacterial or other microbial contaminants. © McGraw-Hill 2 © McGraw-Hill 3 © McGraw-Hill 4 The ancient Romans discovered drug for Fever © McGraw-Hill 5 © McGraw-Hill 6 © McGraw-Hill 7 © McGraw-Hill 8  Outline 1.1 The Characteristics of Life Objectives: (i) Distinguish among the levels of biological organization; (ii) Identify the basic characteristics of life 1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life Objectives: (i) Explain the relationship between the process of natural selection and evolutionary change; (ii) Distinguish between three domains of life 1.3 The Process of Science Objectives: (i) Identify the components of the scientific method, (ii) Distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis, (iii) Analyze an experiment and identify components 1.4 Science and the Challenges Facing Society Objectives: (i) Distinguish between science and technology, (ii) Summarize the major challenges facing science and society © McGraw Hill LLC 9  1.1 The Characteristics of Life Biology is the study of life. There is great diversity among living things. Living things are composed of the same chemical elements as nonliving things. obey the same physical and chemical laws that govern everything in the universe. © McGraw Hill LLC 10  Diversity of Life Figure 1.1 Despite diversity, all living things share the same basic characteristics. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC Earth. (bacteria): Eye of Science/Science Source; (Paramecium): Michael Abbey/Science Source; (morel): Carol Wolfe; (sunflower): Medioimages/PunchStock; (whale in Alaska): Image Source/Getty Images 11  Life Is Organized The levels of biological organization range from atoms to the biosphere. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living things. Unicellular or multicellular Each level of organization is more complex than the level preceding it. As biological complexity increases, each level acquires new, emergent properties. © McGraw Hill LLC 12  Levels of Biological Organization 1 Figure 1.2 © McGraw Hill LLC 13  Levels of Biological Organization 2 Figure 1.2 © McGraw Hill LLC 14  Levels of Biological Organization 3 Figure 1.2 © McGraw Hill LLC 15  Levels of Biological Organization 4 Figure 1.2 © McGraw Hill LLC 16  Levels of Biological Organization 5 Figure 1.2 © McGraw Hill LLC 17  Levels of Biological Organization 6 © McGraw Hill LLC Figure 1.2 18  Levels of Biological Organization 7 © McGraw Hill LLC Figure 1.2 19  Levels of Biological Organization 8 © McGraw Hill LLC Figure 1.2 20  Levels of Biological Organization 9 © McGraw Hill LLC Figure 1.2 21  Levels of Biological Organization 10 © McGraw Hill LLC Figure 1.2 22  Levels of Biological Organization 11 © McGraw Hill LLC Figure 1.2 23  Levels of Biological Organization 12 Figure 1.2 © McGraw Hill LLC Access the text alternative for slide images. 24  How the Biosphere Is Organized 1 The biosphere is the zone of air, land, and water where organisms exist. An ecosystem is a community plus its physical environment. A community is a collection of interacting populations within the same environment. A population is all the members of a species within an area. A species is a group of similar, interbreeding organisms. © McGraw Hill LLC 25  How the Biosphere Is Organized 2 An organism is formed when organ systems are joined together. Organs work together to form organ systems. Tissues make up organs. Similar cells combine together to form tissues. Molecules join to form larger molecules within a cell. Atoms combine to form molecules. The organization of life begins with atoms. © McGraw Hill LLC 26  Life Requires Materials and Energy Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy is required to maintain organization and conduct life-sustaining processes such as chemical reactions. Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell. The sun is the ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth. Plants, algae, and some other organisms capture solar energy and perform photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process that converts solar energy into the chemical energy of carbohydrates. © McGraw Hill LLC 27  Ecosystems 1 Ecosystems are characterized by chemical cycling and energy flow. Chemicals are not used up when organisms die. Chemicals move from one population to another in a food chain. Example: Chemicals move from producers to consumers to decomposers. As a result of death and decomposition, chemicals are returned to living plants. Energy from the sun flows through plants and other members of the food chain as one population feeds on another. Therefore, there must be a constant input of solar energy. © McGraw Hill LLC 28  Ecosystems 2 Figure 1.4 © McGraw Hill LLC Access the text alternative for slide images. 29 Characteristics of Living organisms 1. Living Organisms Maintain Homeostasis and Respond to Their Environment Homeostasis is the maintenance of internal conditions within certain boundaries. It is imperative than an organism maintain a state of biological balance. Feedback systems monitor internal conditions and make adjustments. Living organisms interact with the environment and respond to changes in the environment. The ability to respond often produces movement. © McGraw Hill LLC 30  2. Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop All living organisms must reproduce to maintain a population. The manner of reproduction varies among different organisms. When organisms reproduce, they pass on copies of their genetic information (genes) to the next generation. Genes determine the characteristics of an organism. Genes are composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). © McGraw Hill LLC 31  3. Living Organisms Have Adaptations An adaptation is any modification that makes an organism better able to function in a particular environment. The diversity of life exists because over long periods of time, organisms respond to changing environments by developing new adaptations. Evolution is the change in a population of organisms over time to become more suited to the environment. © McGraw Hill LLC 32  Penguin Adaptations Figure 1.5 Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC Photodisc/Getty Images 33  1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life The theory of evolution explains the diversity and unity of life. The theory of evolution suggests that all living things descended from a common ancestor. Common descent with modification © McGraw Hill LLC 34  Natural Selection Natural selection is the evolutionary mechanism proposed by Charles Darwin. Some aspect of the environment selects which traits are more apt to be passed on to the next generation. Individuals with the favorable traits produce the greater number of offspring that survive and reproduce. This increases the frequency of those favorable traits in population. Mutations fuel natural selection. It introduces variations among members of a population. © McGraw Hill LLC 35  Selecting for or Against New Traits Figure 1.6 © McGraw Hill LLC Access the text alternative for slide images. 36  Evolutionary Tree of Life 1 An evolutionary tree is like a family tree. An evolutionary tree traces the ancestry of life on Earth to a common ancestor. Figure 1.7 © McGraw Hill LLC 37  Evolutionary Tree of Life 2 Figure 1.7 © McGraw Hill LLC 38  Evolutionary Tree of Life 3 Figure 1.7 © McGraw Hill LLC 39  Evolutionary Tree of Life 4 Figure 1.7 © McGraw Hill LLC 40  Evolutionary Tree of Life 5 Figure 1.7 © McGraw Hill LLC 41  Evolutionary Tree of Life 6 Figure 1.7 © McGraw Hill LLC 42  Evolutionary Tree of Life 7 Figure 1.7 © McGraw Hill LLC Access the text alternative for slide images. 43  Organizing Diversity Taxonomy is the discipline of biology that identifies, names, and classifies organisms according to certain rules. Systematics is the study of evolutionary relationships between organisms. Classification categories: From least inclusive category (species) to most inclusive category (domain): Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, supergroup, and domain Each successive category above species includes more types of organisms than the preceding one. © McGraw Hill LLC 44  Levels of Classification Table 1.1 Levels of Classification Category Human Corn Domain Eukarya Eukarya Supergroup* Opisthokonta Archaeplastids Kingdom Animalia Plantae Phylum Chordata Anthophyta Class Mammalia Monocotyledones Order Primates Commelinales Family Hominidae Poaceae Genus Homo Zea Species** H. sapiens Z. mays *Supergroups are only present in Domain Eukarya **To specify an organism, you must use the full binomial name, such as Homo sapiens. © McGraw Hill LLC 45  Domains Domain Archaea Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in extreme environments probably similar to the primitive Earth Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus. Domain Bacteria Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in all environments including on our skin and in our mouth and large intestine Domain Eukarya Contains unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes Eukaryotes contain a membrane-bound nucleus. © McGraw Hill LLC 46  Domain Archaea Prokaryotic cells of various shapes Adaptations to extreme environments Absorb or chemosynthesize food Unique chemical Sulfolobus, an archaean characteristics Figure 1.8 © McGraw Hill LLC ©Eye of Science/Science Source 47  Domain Bacteria Prokaryotic cells of various shapes Adaptations to all environments Absorb, photosynthesize, or chemosynthesize food Unique chemical characteristics Escherichia coli, a bacterium Figure 1.9 © McGraw Hill LLC ©A. Barry Dowsett/Science Source 48  Domain Eukarya Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi Algae, protozoans, slime Molds, mushrooms, yeasts, molds, and water molds and ringworms Complex single cell Mostly multicellular filaments (sometimes filaments, with specialized, complex cells colonies, or even multicellular) Absorb food Absorb, photosynthesize, Paramecium, a single-celled protozoan or ingest food Amanita, a mushroom Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia Certain algae, mosses, ferns, Sponges, worms, insects, conifers, and flowering plants fishes, frogs, turtles, birds, and mammals Multicellular, usually with specialized tissues, Multicellular with containing complex cells specialized tissues containing complex cells Photosynthesize food lngest food Phalaenopsis, orchid, a flowering plant Vulpes, a red fox Figure 1.10 © McGraw Hill LLC (Paramecium): M. I. Walker/Science Source; (mushroom): Ingram Publishing/Getty Images; (orchid): Emilio Ereza/Pixtal/age fotostock; (fox): Fuse/Getty Images 49  Kingdoms Domain Archaea – kingdom designations are being determined Domain Bacteria – kingdom designations are being determined Domain Eukarya – kingdoms are designated, but new taxonomic supergroups are being determined Kingdom Protista Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia © McGraw Hill LLC 50  Eukaryotic Supergroups Table 1.2 Eukaryotic Supergroups Supergroup Sample Organisms Excavata Diplomonads, euglenozoans Chromalveolata Dinoflagellates, ciliates, diatoms, golden algae, brown algae, and water molds Rhizaria Foraminiferans, radiolarians Archaeplastida Red algae, green algae, land plants Amoebozoa Amoeboids, slime molds Opisthokonta Fungi, choanoflagellates, animals © McGraw Hill LLC 51  Scientific Names Universal Latin-based Binomial nomenclature Two-part name First word is the genus. Always capitalized Second word is the species designation (or specific epithet). Written in lowercase Both words are italicized. Examples: Homo sapiens (humans), Zea mays (corn) © McGraw Hill LLC 52  1.3 The Process of Science The scientific method is a standard series of steps used in gaining new knowledge through research. The scientific method can be divided into five steps: Observation Hypothesis Predictions and Experiments Data Collection with Statistical Analysis Results and Conclusion © McGraw Hill LLC 53  Flow Diagram for Scientific Method Figure 1.11 © McGraw Hill LLC Access the text alternative for slide images. 54  Observations and Hypotheses Observation Scientists use their senses to gather information about a phenomenon or natural event. Hypotheses A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for what was observed. An example is the discovery of the antibiotic penicillin. It is developed through inductive reasoning. It is testable. © McGraw Hill LLC 55  Predictions and Experiments 1 An experiment is a series of procedures designed to test a hypothesis. It utilizes deductive reasoning to make a prediction or expected outcome. The manner in which a scientist conducts an experiment is called the experimental design. A good experimental design ensures that the scientist is examining the contribution of a specific variable, called the experimental (independent) variable, to the observation. The experimental variable is the factor being tested. © McGraw Hill LLC 56  Predictions and Experiments 2 A test group is exposed to the experimental variable. A control group goes through all aspects of the experiment but is not exposed to the experimental variable. If the control and test groups show the same results, the hypothesis is not supported. The data are the results of an experiment. Results should be observable and objective. Tables and graphs are two possible formats for data. © McGraw Hill LLC 57  Presenting and Analyzing Data Statistical Data Data are analyzed using statistics. Measures of variation Standard error: How far off the average of the data is Statistical Significance Probability value (p) Less than 5% is acceptable (p < 0.05) The lower the p value, the greater the confidence in the results Not due to chance 'alone © McGraw Hill LLC 58  Presentation of Scientific Data Figure 1.12 © McGraw Hill LLC Access the text alternative for slide images. 59  Conclusions and Peer Review The data are interpreted to determine whether the hypothesis is supported or not. If prediction happens, hypothesis is supported If not, hypothesis is rejected Findings are reported in scientific journals. Peers review the findings. Other scientists then attempt to duplicate or dismiss the published findings. © McGraw Hill LLC 60  Scientific Publications Figure 1.13 Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC ©Ricochet Creative Productions LLC 61  Scientific Theory Versus Law Scientific Theory: Concepts that join together two or more well- supported and related hypotheses Supported by broad range of observations, experiments, and data Scientific Principle / Law: Widely accepted set of theories No serious challenges to validity © McGraw Hill LLC 62  Basic Theories of Biology Theory Concept Cell All organisms are composed of cells, and new cells come only from preexisting cells. Homeostasis The internal environment of an organism stays relatively constant—within a range that is protective of life. Evolution All living organisms have a common ancestor, but each is adapted to a particular way of life. © McGraw Hill LLC 63  Example of a Controlled Study Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill LLC Figure 1.14 (students): Andrey_Popov/Shutterstock; (surgery): Phanie/Science Source 64  Controlled Study: Experimental Design Hypothesis: Newly discovered antibiotic B is a better treatment for ulcers than antibiotic A, which is in current use. Experimental Design: One control group includes subjects with ulcers who are not treated with either antibiotic. Two test groups are subjects with ulcers who are treated with either antibiotic A or B. © McGraw Hill LLC 65  Controlled Study: Results and Conclusion An endoscopy (a procedure that allows doctors to examine the linings of the throat, stomach, and upper small intestine to check for ulcers) is performed on all subjects. The investigators then use statistics to determine the effectiveness of the various treatments. On the basis of the data, the investigators conclude that their hypothesis has been supported. © McGraw Hill LLC 66  1.4 Science and the Challenges Facing Society Science is a systematic way of acquiring knowledge about the natural world. Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to the interests of humans. Examples: cell phone, new drug, others? © McGraw Hill LLC 67  Climate Change Climate change refers to changes in the normal cycles of the Earth’s climate attributable to human activities Due to imbalance in chemical cycling of carbon More carbon is being released than removed. Burning of fossil fuels Destruction of forests and replacement by farmland Increase in CO2 causes temperature increases, called global warming. Produced by greenhouse effect Global warming is changing Earth’s ecosystems. © McGraw Hill LLC 68  Biodiversity and Habitat Loss Biodiversity is the total number and relative abundance of species, the variability of their genes, and the different ecosystems in which they live. Estimated to be as high as 8.7 million species Approximately 2.3 million of which named and identified Extinction is the death of the last member of a species or larger classification category. Estimated to be losing hundreds of species every year due to human activities © McGraw Hill LLC 69  Biologically Diverse Ecosystems Are in Danger Tropical rain forests and coral reef ecosystems are home to many organisms. Both ecosystems are threatened by human activities. The canopy of the tropical rain forest supports orchids, insects, and monkeys, among other organisms. Coral reefs provide habitats for jellyfish, sponges, crabs, lobsters, sea turtles, moray eels, and fishes. © McGraw Hill LLC 70  Destruction of Healthy Ecosystems Has Unintended Effects Humans depend upon healthy ecosystems for: Food Medicines Raw materials Draining of wetlands of Mississippi and Ohio Rivers: Worsened flooding Ruined farmland Destruction of South American rain forests: Killed species Decreased availability of lumber © McGraw Hill LLC 71  Emerging Diseases Over the past decade several new diseases have been in the news: H5N1 H7N9 SARS MERS SARS-CoV-2 Where do emerging diseases come from? New or increased exposure to insects or animals Changes in behavior Use of technology (Legionnaires’ disease) Globalization Pathogens mutating and changing hosts (avian flu) © McGraw Hill LLC 72  Because learning changes everything.® www.mheducation.com Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.  Appendix: Image Description for Unsighted Students © McGraw Hill LLC 74  Diversity of Life - Text Alternative Return to parent-slide containing images. Biology is the scientific study of life. The photos shown are a sample of the many diverse forms of life found on planet Earth. Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 75  Levels of Biological Organization - Text 12 Alternative Return to parent-slide containing images. The levels of biological organization leading to one another are as follows: Atom: Smallest unit of an element composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons Molecule: Union of two or more atoms of the same or different elements Cell: The structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Tissue: A group of cells with a common structure and function. Organ System: Composed of several organs working together. Organism: An individual; complex individuals contain organ systems. Species: A group of similar, interbreeding organisms. Population: Organisms of the same species in a particular area.. Community: Interacting populations in a particular area. Ecosystem: A community plus the physical environment. Biosphere: Regions of the Earth’s crust, waters, and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms. Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 76  Ecosystems - Text Alternative 2 Return to parent-slide containing images. The illustration shows solar energy being consumed by the producers, giving out heat; while producers are consumed by consumers, giving out heat. The chemicals in the producers and consumers are consumed by decomposers, giving out heat, while the same chemicals that are consumed by decomposers are returned to the producers during their growth. Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 77  Penguin Adaptations - Text Alternative Return to parent-slide containing images. Living organisms have adaptations. Penguins have evolved complex behaviors, such as sliding across ice to conserve energy, to adapt to their environment. Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 78  Selecting for or Against New Traits - Text Alternative Return to parent-slide containing images. Some plants within a population exhibit variation in leaf structure, which lead to deer preferring a diet of smooth leaves over hairy leaves; plants with hairy leaves reproduce more than other plants in the population, which generations later leads to most plants within the population having hairy leaves, as smooth leaves are selected against. Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 79 Evolutionary Tree of Life - Text Alternative 7 Return to parent-slide containing images. As existing organisms change over time, they give rise to new species. Evolutionary studies show that all living organisms arose from a common ancestor about 4 billion years ago. Domain Archaea and domain Bacteria include the prokaryotes. Domain Eukarya includes both single- celled and multicellular organisms that possess a membrane-bound nucleus. Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 80  Flow Diagram for Scientific Method - Text Alternative Return to parent-slide containing images. The flowchart shows the following data: Observation leads to potential hypotheses (which includes hypothesis 1, 2 and 3) leading to prediction which gives rise to experiment leading to rejection of hypothesis 1. Experiment leads to remaining possible hypotheses (which includes hypothesis 2 and 3) leading to prediction which gives rise to experiment leading to rejection of hypothesis 2. Experiment leads to last remaining possible hypotheses (hypothesis 3) leading to prediction which gives rise to experiments (which includes experiment 1 through 4) where predictions are confirmed from experiment 2 and 3, finally leading to a conclusion, while experiment 4 is used to modify the hypothesis. Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 81  Presentation of Scientific Data - Text Alternative Return to parent-slide containing images. The horizontal axis represents weeks ranging from week 1 through week 4, while the vertical axis represents blood cholesterol (milligrams per deciliter) ranging from 150 to 225 in increments of 25. The data is as follows: The curve begins at week 1 with blood cholesterol of 187.5 and ends at week 4 with blood cholesterol of 175, passing through week 2 with blood cholesterol of 212.5 and week 3 with blood cholesterol of 200. A vertical bar for 25 milligrams per deciliter at each point represents standard error. Note: All data is approximate. Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 82  Scientific Publications - Text Alternative Return to parent-slide containing images. Scientific publications. Scientific journals, such as Evolution, are scholarly journals in which researchers share their findings with other scientists. Scientific magazines, such as Audobon (shown here) and Scientific American, contain articles that are usually written by reporters for a broader audience. Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 83  Example of a Controlled Study - Text Alternative Return to parent-slide containing images. The illustration shows the following data: Collect Data: Each subject was examined for the presence of ulcers (Exemplified by an image of State Hypothesis: laboratory technician observing the data) Antibiotic B is a better treatment for ulcers than The plot of control and test groups against antibiotic A (Exemplified by a group of people percentage of people treated (ranging from 0 to (including males and females)). 100 in increments of 20) shows the following data: Perform Experiment: Control Group: 10 Groups were treated the same except as noted Test Group 1: 60; and (Exemplified by a group of people divided further into three sub-groups). Test Group 2: 80. Control group: received placebo. Test group 1: received antibiotic A Test group 2: received antibiotic B (Exemplified by a set of three illustrations representing lateral close-up of a human taking a medicinal capsule) Return to parent-slide containing images. © McGraw Hill LLC 84