Biol 1300 Unit 7: Spices and Flavourings PDF

**Biol 1300 Unit 7** **SPICES AND FLAVOURINGS** **Spices** are plant parts like fruits, seeds, leaves, or rhizomes used in cooking to add pleasant flavors and aromas. All spice flavors and aromas come from chemical substances, mainly aromatic terpenoids/monoterpenes (essential or volatile oils) fo...

**Biol 1300 Unit 7** **SPICES AND FLAVOURINGS** **Spices** are plant parts like fruits, seeds, leaves, or rhizomes used in cooking to add pleasant flavors and aromas. All spice flavors and aromas come from chemical substances, mainly aromatic terpenoids/monoterpenes (essential or volatile oils) found in plants like the Mints (Lamiaceae) family. "Volatile" refers to chemicals that readily diffuse (volatilize) into the air. Crushing, cutting, or cooking the plant ruptures plant cells, releasing the aromatic terpenoids. These oils are in different parts for different species. **SPICES IN HISTORY** Spices were initially used in food for their preservative, antimicrobial, and medicinal properties, to mask the smell and taste of spoiling food, and to enhance the flavor of bland dishes. The Roman conquests introduced Mediterranean spices to northern Europe about 2,000 years ago. During the Dark Ages (641-1096 CE), only locally grown spices were used in Europe. However, the Crusades spread spices (641-1096 AD). Venetian merchants played a significant role in the events leading to the destruction of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. Initially, the Crusaders lacked sufficient funds to pay for their transportation to the Holy Land. [They negotiated a deal with the Venetians to transport them](https://churchpedia.org/1204-fourth-crusade-sacks-constantinople/). [However, when the Crusaders couldn't pay the agreed amount, the Venetians requested their military assistance instead](https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Mizzou_Academy/World_History_A_B/07%3A_Western_Europe_and_Byzantium_%28Middle_Ages%29/7.9%3A_The_Fourth_Crusade). [This arrangement ultimately led to the Crusaders diverting from their original mission and attacking Constantinople, resulting in the city's tragic sacking in 1204](https://churchpedia.org/1204-fourth-crusade-sacks-constantinople/). Thus, Venice became the main distributor of exotic spices from the trans-Asian Spice Trade. The wealth accumulated in Venice funded a rich cultural, artistic, and architectural legacy. The Spice Trade involved importing spices, especially black pepper, and other products from India, China, and the Arabian Peninsula in exchange for European grains, glass, wine, and woolen cloth. Marco Polo's expeditions (1269-1294) introduced new Indian and East Asian spices to Europe. Over time, the overland caravan trade routes became dangerous due to profiteering, making the supply of spices to Europe unreliable and extremely expensive. In addition, it was challenging to cross large deserts with only camels and horses. In 1499, Vasco de Gama discovered an alternative sea trade route from Europe to India and East Asia by sailing around Africa. The Portuguese East India Company initially monopolized the trade in black pepper and other spices, but this monopoly was broken by the British and Dutch in the 1600s. The Dutch East India Company colonized the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), while the British controlled the Malay peninsula (now Malaysia). By the mid-1800s, the Dutch and especially the British had established plantations of spice crops, medicinal plants, rubber, and sugar in these and other regions, ensuring a larger and more reliable supply of these commodities, making them more available and affordable. **SPICES OF TEMPERATE REGIONS** **MINT (LAMIACEAE) FAMILY** The Mint Family, a large eudicot family, includes mainly perennial herbs and low woody shrubs. Many species in this family contain fragrant "minty" essential oils in specialized leaf cells. Economically important Mint Family spices, native to the Mediterranean region, were first used by the Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans and spread through Europe. The leaves of these species are used as spices, either fresh or dried, though drying can result in some loss of essential oils. Mint Family essential oils are also extracted and concentrated for use in the cosmetics industry and as flavorings. The following members of the mint family are most used as spices: **ROSEMARY** (Rosmarinus officinalis): The leaves of this woody Mediterranean tall shrub have a sharp, pungent flavour, and are widely used in cooking. The essential oil is used widely in the cosmetics and perfume industries. **THYME** (Thymus vulgaris): This highly aromatic Mediterranean low shrub has tiny leaves used in various prepared dishes (soups, stews, sauces, meat dishes) and as a garnish. Several cultivars of T. vulgaris are available, and other species in the genus Thymus (e.g. lemon thyme, T. x citriodora) are also used as culinary herbs. **OREGANO** (Origanum vulgare): This highly pungent perennial herb is indigenous to Eurasia. It is widely used in Italian cooking (particularly in pizza and pasta sauces), and in sausages, meat dishes and stuffings. The closely related marjoram (O. majorana), native to the eastern Mediterranean, is used in much the same way. Marjoram is preferred in northern Italy, while southerners tend to prefer oregano. **SAGE** (Salvia officinalis): The leaves of this herbaceous perennial Mediterranean native are highly pungent and have a strong, somewhat bitter flavour. Sage is widely used as a seasoning for roasted meats and in poultry stuffing. The species contains small amounts of a neurotoxic volatile oil thujone. Thus, moderation is key in sage consumption as too much may impact brain function. **BASIL** (Ocimum basilicum): This widely distributed annual herb, native to Africa, India, the eastern Mediterranean, and Southeast Asia, was first domesticated in India and North Africa, and later in Europe. Sweet-pungent basil leaves enhance the flavor of pasta sauces, salads, soups, and meat dishes. Pesto sauce is made by mixing fresh crushed basil leaves with olive oil, garlic, parmesan cheese, and pine nuts. Thai basil, a cultivar, is widely used in Asia, notably Vietnam and Thailand in stir-fries and salads. **MINTS** (Mentha spp.): Several mint species are commercially important, including spearmint (M. spicata), peppermint (M. piperita), and field mint (M. arvensis). All are perennial herbs. Spearmint, native to the Mediterranean, is used as a potherb in meat and vegetable dishes and makes a refreshing tea. Peppermint, an essential oil with a \"cooling\" flavour and a European cultigen, is grown for menthol extraction, which flavors candies, desserts, pharmaceuticals (e.g. cough mixtures, toothpastes, cosmetics), and cigarettes. Over 3,000 tons of menthol are produced annually in the U.S. alone. Field mint, native to Europe and Asia, grows well in the tropics and is used in Indian, Japanese, and Southeast Asian cooking. Menthol can also be extracted from field mint. Other spices of the Mint family include summer savory (Satureja hortensis) and winter savory (S. montana), both widely used in southern Europe. They taste like thyme and mint. Another species is perilla (Perilla frutescens), an annual herb native to east Asia and first cultivated in China about 3,000 years ago. Fresh or pickled perilla leaves are used extensively in Korean and Japanese cooking as garnishes, and in salads. **CARROT (APIACEAE) FAMILY** In addition to its importance as a source of vegetables (e.g. carrots, parsnips, celery), the Carrot Family also includes several economically important spices. Both the leaves and fruit (often termed \"seeds\") are used (especially the latter); they have a characteristic musty, dried pungent flavour and aroma. The following are important aromatic spices obtained from the leaves (used fresh, or dried): **PARSLEY** (Petroselinium crispum): This biennial herb is native to the Mediterranean and was popular with the Ancient Greeks and Romans. It is an important culinary herb, used both as a garnish and as a potherb in soups, salads, stews and meat dishes. **DILL** (Anethum graveolens). This annual plant is native to the East Mediterranean and Southwest Asia region, and has become naturalized in much of North America, Europe and Asia. The leaves (\"dill weed\") are used as a seasoning and garnish. The fruit (\"dill seed\") are used to flavour pickles and vinegars, and as a seasoning for fish and meat dishes. **CILANTRO and CORIANDER** (Coriandrum sativum). Like dill, this annual species is native to the Mediterranean and Southwest Asia. The spice obtained from the leaves, known as cilantro, has a distinctive \"soapy\" taste; it is a common seasoning in Asian, Indian, Central American and Middle Eastern cuisine. The spice derived from the fruit, known as coriander, is an important ingredient in Asian and Indian cooking; it is an important ingredient in curry powders and other spice mixtures. **ANGELICA** (Angelica archangelica): This large biennial herb is native to Eurasia. In Europe (and especially France), the dark-green leaf stalks (petioles) are candied in sugar and added to cakes and pastries. Angelica stems and roots are also used to flavour alcoholic beverages (e.g. gin, chartreuse, vermouth). Other leafy spices from the Carrot family include chervil (Anthriscus cereforlium) and lovage (Levisticum officinale). Both are native to central Asia and were introduced to Europe by the Ancient Greeks and Romans and introduced by them to the rest of Europe. They are especially important in contemporary French cooking (the former is a common seasoning, and all parts are used in the latter). The fruit of the Carrot family is known as a schizocarp. It consists of a thin, hard, striated pericarp fused to the seed of the fruit. The following are important spices obtained from (commonly referred to as \"seeds\"): **FENNEL** (Foeniculum vulgare): Fennel is a perennial herb native to the Mediterranean. It has a long history of use; the Ancient Egyptians used the fruit and leaves as a spice (var. dulce), while the Romans cultivated the plant as a vegetable. The leaf bases, known as Florence fennel (var. azoricum), are edible and used as a vegetable. Anethole, an anise-flavoured essential oil, is extracted for use as a flavouring in the food and pharmaceutical industries. **CUMIN** (Cuminum cyminum): This annual herb is native to Eurasia and has been cultivated for centuries in central Asia and India. It has a spicy-bitter taste and is commonly used in curries and other spice mixtures. Cumin is used in many culinary dishes (soups, sauces, meats), and added to rye bread and cheeses as a flavouring agent. **ANISE** (Pimpinella anisum): This annual Mediterranean herb was used as a spice in Ancient Egypt and Greece. The anise-flavoured fruit is used in meat and vegetable dishes; the fresh leaves are also used as a garnish. Anise is commonly used to flavour liqueurs (e.g. pernod, sambuca, ouzo), cosmetic products, and medicinal preparations. **CARAWAY** (Carum carvi): Caraway is a biennial herb native to Eurasia. The pungent, peppery fruit are used in meat and vegetable dishes and are often added to bread as a flavouring (e.g. Indian papadum, a crispy flatbread). The closely related ajwain (Trachylospermum ammi), native to India, has a similar flavour and is used extensively in India and north Africa. Both caraway and ajwain are also used medicinally. **OTHER TEMPERATE SPICES** Spices and flavourings are derived from other temperate plants. Examples: **MUSTARDS** (Brassica and Sinapsis species): Three mustard species are used; black (Brassica nigra), brown (B. juncea) and white (Sinapsis alba). Mustard seeds are crushed and processed into a condiment paste, often with other ingredients including vinegar, wine, and other spices. White mustard is pungent and bitter, whereas black and brown mustards are spicy. **TARRAGON** (Artemisia dracunculus): Tarragon leaves are used to flavour French mustard and vinegars. The species belongs to the Sunflower (Asteraceae) Family. The flowers of two other members of this family, tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) and chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), are used to make a refreshing herbal tea. **BAY LEAF** (Laurus nobilis): The bay laurel is a small magnoliid tree native to the Mediterranean region. The dried leaves are added to soups and prepared dishes for flavour; the leaves themselves are not eaten. In Roman times a wreath of bay laurel leaves was presented to the winners of sporting events. **SAFFRON** (Crocus sativus): True saffron, perhaps the most expensive of spices, is the styles from flowers of saffron crocus (Crocus sativus). About 150 flowers are needed to obtain 1 gram of saffron (hence their price). Saffron adds a unique flavour and yellow orange colour to food; less expensive alternatives (sometimes called \"false saffron\") such as turmeric (Indian saffron) and safflower are often used to achieve a similar effect. **SPICES OF TROPICAL REGIONS** Many spices and flavourings are used in tropical regions of the world. The following is a summary of some of the economically important ones. **CINNAMON** (Cinnamomum species): Cinnamon is derived from small side shoots (root sprouts) of the bark of Cinnamonum trees, native to eastern Asia. The inner bark is harvested, cleaned, dried, and powdered. The two main types are Chinese or cassia cinnamon (C. cassia), known for its strong spicy flavor and is more commercially important, and Sri Lanka or \"true cinnamon\" (C. verum), which has a more subtle flavor and the inner bark naturally curls into "sticks" as it dries. **CLOVES** (Syzygium aromaticum): Cloves are dried, unopened flower buds from a tree native to the Molucca Islands of Indonesia (Southeast Asia). Cloves is a popular culinary spice in Asian and European cooking. Clove oil is used as a local anaesthetic (primarily to alleviate toothaches) and as a disinfectant. Much of the current clove crop (about 100,000 tons annually) is used to produce kretek cigarettes (a mixture of 60% tobacco and 40% cloves); these are especially popular in Indonesia. **NUTMEG** and **MACE** (Myristica fragrans): Nutmeg and mace come from the fruit of a magnoliid tree native to the Banda Islands, which are nine small islands in Indonesia (Southeast Asia), also known as \"spice islands.\" Nutmeg is a pungent spice made by grating the seed, and widely used in European and Asian cooking while mace is the dried aril surrounding the seed and is less commonly used. Both spices, along with cloves and black pepper, were significant in the Southeast Asian Spice Trade. **BLACK PEPPER** (Piper nigrum): Black pepper, distinct from chili peppers, is the fruit of a magnoliid vine native to the Malabar region of southwest India. The spice is produced by fermenting and drying unripe green peppercorns. White pepper, derived from fully ripened fruit, involves soaking the peppercorns to remove the outer flesh before drying. The lucrative trade of black pepper significantly contributed to the rise of the Venetian and Portuguese Empires. Today, black pepper remains a vital spice, with major producers being India, Indonesia, and Brazil. **GINGER** (Zingiber officinale): Ginger, a cultigen of uncertain origin, native to India and southern China, has been used for thousands of years as a spice and medicine. The rhizome can be used fresh or dried to a powder. Ginger is a monocot species propagated from rhizome cuttings. Other spices from the Ginger family include galangal, native to Southeast Asia and used in Asian cooking, and turmeric, a yellow spice from India obtained by powdering the dried rhizome and widely used in Asia. It is like saffron but more yellow. Cardamom, indigenous to India, is a popular pungent spice in Indian cooking. The seeds and the fruit (which must ripen and open first) are used. Powder can be made as well. **ALLSPICE** (Pimenta dioica): Allspice is one of the few commercially important spices that is native to the Americas (Central America and the Caribbean), and it is still mostly grown there. The unripe dried berries combine the flavours and aromas of several spices (notably cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg), hence the name. **CHILI or CAYENNE PEPPERS** (Capsicum frutescens): Cayenne peppers, native to Central and South America, are popular worldwide. The two major hot pepper types are tabasco and habanero, with habanero being one of the hottest. Milder chili peppers, like jalapeno, belong to the species *C. annuum*. Chili peppers can be used fresh, dried, or pickled for hot sauces (which vary in their spiciness based on capsicum of different pepper species). Paprika is made by drying and grinding mild chili peppers. Chili powder is a blend of dried chili pepper, cumin, garlic, and oregano (recipes vary however). Major producers include India, Thailand, and Africa. **VANILLA** (Vanilla planifolia): Natural vanilla comes from a monocot perennial vine in the Orchid (Orchidaceae) family, native to Central and South America, but also grown in Southeast Asia and Africa. The flavor is extracted from the mature fruit or \"bean.\" Artificial vanilla, made from wood pulp, is cheaper but lacks the complex flavor of natural vanilla, which contains vanillin and over 40 other compounds.