Biodiversity Notes PDF

Invertebrates (2) Molluscs 軟體動物 (Phylum Mollusca) l Vary in size l Marine, freshwater, terrestrial habitats l Herbivores(草食), carnivores(肉食), filter feeders, parasites l 100k species Molluscs l 3 parts n Visceral Mass → contains internal organs n Man...

Invertebrates (2) Molluscs 軟體動物 (Phylum Mollusca) l Vary in size l Marine, freshwater, terrestrial habitats l Herbivores(草食), carnivores(肉食), filter feeders, parasites l 100k species Molluscs l 3 parts n Visceral Mass → contains internal organs n Mantle → Cover visceral mass, may secrete calcium carbonate & help develop gills or lungs n Foot → locomoIon, aJachment, food capture l Radula 齒舌 → grazing and other types of feeding l Well-developed nervous system Molluscs ‒ Bivalves 雙殼類 (Class Bivalvia) Examples: Clams, oysters, mussels, scallops l 2 parts shell closed by adductor muscles 內收肌 l No head & radula, liJle cephaliza8on 有頭化 l Tentacles 觸手 on mantle l Foot funcIon n Clams 蛤 → burrow 打洞 in sandy & muddy soil n Oyster & mussel → produce threads to aJach objects n Scallops 扇貝 → burrow & swim l Filter feeder → capture food parIcle suspended in water n 1. Water drawn in through inlet siphon contains suspended water n 2. Flow of mucus carrying trapped parIcles over gills n 3. Filtered water release through outlet siphon Molluscs ‒ Gastropods 腹足類（蝸牛&蛞蝓 etc.）(Class Gastropoda) Example: Slugs, snails, abalones, whelks, conchs, limpets, nudibranchs (sea slugs) l Largest class in molluscs l Most have one-piece coiled shell (NOT ALL!!!) l Well-developed head region l FlaJen & elongated foot l Mostly marine, slugs 蛞蝓 and snails adapted to terrestrial 陸地 l Radula → graze on seaweeds l Deposit feeders / suspension feeders / carnivores (use radula to capture food) Molluscs ‒ Cephalopods 頭足類(Class Cephalopoda) Example: squids, octopuses l Marine (1 species tolerate brackish water 半鹹水) l Tentacles & arms capture prey by adhesive secre8on & suckers l Beak(jaw) tear prey l Well-developed sense organ Annelids 環節動物 (Phylum Annelida) Examples: Earthworms, marine worms, leeches l Segmented worms, mostly marine l Well-developed coelom(fluid-filled) – hydrosta8c skeleton l ParIIoning of the coelom 腔體的分割 & hydrostaIc skeleton → independent movement of each body segment n Can burrow in mud & crawl Flatworms 扁蟲 (Phylum Platyhelminthes 扁型動物門) l Flat body l No specialized circulatory & respiratory structures l Sac body plan only 1 opening(mouth), incomplete digesIve tract(complete have 2) l No body cavity → mesoderm fills space between organs ParasiIc flatworms (flukes 吸蟲 & tapeworms 絛蟲) l ParasiIc mode l Specialize body covering → resistant to host digesIve juices l NOT well-developed nervous system l Well-developed reproduc8ve system → ensure transmission to new host l Cephaliza8on lost, head replaced by hooks or suckers l UIlize a secondary host to transmit offspring between primary host  Arthropods 節肢動物 (Phylum Arthropoda 節肢動物門) （昆蟲&甲殼類） l Rigid & jointed exoskeleton composed of chi8n 甲殼素, must molt 蛻皮 when they grow l SegmentaIon n Each segment has a pair of appendages 附屬物 for different purpose u Food gathering u ReproducIon u LocomoIon u TacIle 觸覺 n Some fused into head, thorax, abdomen l Well-developed nervous system n Brain and ventral nerve cord n Simple or compound eyes l Variety of respiratory organs n Gills, book lungs, tracheae 氣管 l Metamorphosis 變態 n Reduce compeIIon u larvae 幼蟲 and adult need different food & environment Arthropods – Crustaceans 甲殼類 Examples: Shrimp, lobsters, crayfish, crabs, barnacles, copepods, krill l Have exoskeleton l Most have compound eyes & 5 pairs of appendages (NOT ALL!!!) l Majority live in marine & aquaIc environment (NOT ALL!!!) Arthropods – CenIpedes & millipedes 蜈蚣和千足蟲 l CenIpedes n Each body segment has 1 pair walking leg n Moist environment n Prey on small crustaceans, insects, worms u Head → paired antennae 觸角 & mandibles 下顎 u Jaws kill prey, mandibles chews l Millipedes n Each 4 thoracic segment has 1 pair leg n Each abdominal segments have 2 pairs of legs  n Under stone or burrow in the soil n Feed on leaf liJer n Cylindrical bodies, some secrete hydrogen cyanide 山埃 Arthropods – Insect l Most live on land l Body 3 parts 1.head 2.thorax 3.abdomen l 3 pairs of leg in thorax, some have 1 or 2 pairs of wings l Head → sense organs & mouth l Abdomen → most internal organ l Many undergo complete metamorphosis | eg: incomplete → grasshopper l Food for other animals and carnivorous plants Arthropods – Chelicerates 螯肢類（陸地&海蜘蛛，蟎蟲，鱟） Examples: Terrestrial spiders, sea spiders, scorpions, Icks, mites, horseshoe crabs l Terrestrial, aquaIc, marine environment l >35k spiders / >1.5k scorpions l All appendages aJached to cephalothorax 頭胸部 n 1st pair (chelicerae 螯肢) for feeding and defense n 2nd pair (pedipalps 須肢/足部) for feeding or sensory system n 4 pairs walking legs l Horseshoe crab 鱟 n Prosoma (cephalothorax) u With several eyes n Opisthosoma (abdomen) n Telson (tail) u To steer and turn over Echinoderms 棘皮動物 (Phylum Echinodermata 棘皮動物門) Sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers l BoJom-dwelling marine animals 底棲海洋生物 l Larvae → bilateral symmetry, free-swimming, filter feeders l Adults → five-pointed radial symmetry l Endoskeleton → calcium rich plates with spines l Central nerve ring with branches l Water vascular system 水血管系統 for n LocomoIon n Feeding n Gas exchange n Sensory recepIon  Vertebrates (1) Chordates 脊索動物 (Phylum Chordata 脊索動物門) l Bilateral symmetrical l Deuterostomate animal 後口動物 n the first opening formed during embryonic development becomes the anus l Subphylum Cephalpchordata 頭脊索亞門 (NON VERTEBRATES) l Subphylum Urochordata 尾索動物亞門 (NON VERTEBRATES) l Subphylum Vertebrata 椎骨亞門 l Most chordates are vertebrates (hv a vertebral column) n Fishes n Amphibians 兩棲 n RepIles n Birds n Mammals l Most have internal skeleton (bone and / or car8lage ), muscle aJach on it n Allows greater freedom of movement n AJain larger body size than invertebrates CharacterisIcs of Chordates l Have 4 characterisIc during development n Notochord 脊索 u Dorsal 背 supporIng rod below nerve cord u Most vertebrates have embryonic notochord 胚胎脊索, replaced by vertebral column 脊椎 during embryonic development n Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord 背管神經索, Vertebrates: Spinal Cord 脊髓 u Protected by vertebrae 椎骨 in vertebrates u Most chordates, anterior por8on become brain n Pharyngeal Pouches 咽袋 u Most vertebrates only seen during embryonic development u Nonvertebrate, fishes, amphibians larvae →gills for respiraIon u Terrestrial vertebrates → for various purpose, eg: human 1st pouches is for auditory tubes 聽覺管 n Postanal Tail 肛門後尾 u Tail in embryo, if not in adult → extend beyond anus u Some chordates disappear during embryonic development eg:human  Nonvertebrate Chordates (Cephalochordates & Urochordates) l S8ll have notochord 沒有被 vertebral column 脊椎取代 l Do not have spine 脊椎 made of vertebrae l Lancelets 文昌魚目 (Cephalochordates) n Shallow marine environment u Most Ime buried in sandy / muddy substrates u Rarely swim u Only anterior end protruding 突出 n Filter feeder u 1. Water enter mouth 2. Passing through gill slits 3. Exist at atriopore 腹孔 u Feed on planktons 蜉蝣生物 l Sea Squirts 海鞘 (Urochordates) n Live on seafloor 海底 n Adults have thick outer covering n When disturbed, squirt water from excurrent siphon n Filter feeder Vertebrates (Subphylum Vertebrata 椎骨亞門) l Chordates with vertebral columns and other features l Have the 4 characterisIc of chordates and these features n Vertebral column u Embryonic notochord replaced by it u Remnants 殘餘物 of notochord rise to intervertebral discs 椎間盤 n Skull 顱骨 u Enclose and protect brain u High degree of cephalizaIon, well-developed sensory organ n Endoskeleton (carIlage or bone) u Living Issue grow with animal u Protect internal organs u For muscle aJachment → rapid & effecIve movement u 2 pairs appendages l Fishes → pectoral & pelvic fins l Terrestrial tetrapod 陸生四足動物 → 4 limbs n Internal organizaIon u Complete digesIve tract u Close circulatory system → blood contained within blood vessels  u Respiratory system → obtain oxygen u Kidneys → excreIon and water balance u Sexes → separate u ReproducIon → usually sexual Fishes l ~28k species Jawless Fishes 無頜魚 – Hagfishes & Lampreys 盲鰻和七鰓鰻 l Car8laginous skeleton 軟骨骨骼, lack of bony skeleton l S8ll have notochord l Cylindrical, up to 1m l Smooth, no scaly skin 無鱗片 l Hagfishes n Marine scavengers 海洋清道夫 n Feed on som bodied invertebrates & dead fishes l Lampreys n Filter feeding or parasiIc n For parasiIc → aJach to other fish with mouth and suck nutrient from host’s cardiovascular system Jawed Fishes 有頜魚 l Ectothermy 變溫 l Have carIlaginous or bony endoskeleton n Endoskeleton u Vertebral column u Skull with jaws u Paired pectoral & pelvic fins n LocomoIon mainly through large muscles n Fins help with balance and turning l Have scales 鱗片 l Use gills to breath CarIlaginous Fishes Have a CarIlaginous Skeleton (Sharks & Rays) l Skeleton composed of carIlage instead of bone l Lack gill cover l Body covered with dermal den8cles 真皮齒狀物 Bony Fishes Have a Bony Skeleton l 25k species n 3 groups, different in fin structures u Ray-finned fishes 射線鰭魚 u Lungfish 肺魚 u Coelacanths 腔棘魚 l Lacking external gill slits, gill covered by operculum 鰓蓋 l Have Swim bladder 鰾 n Gas filled sac n Gas secreIon & absorpIon → change buoyancy 浮力 l Well-developed brain and nervous system l Separated sexes l Most undergo external ferIlizaIon 體外受精 n Females deposit eggs, males deposit sperm into water l Ray-finned Fishes (Class AcInopterygii) n Parallel bony rays support & sIffen 加強 each fin n Fins have not muscles l Lobe-finned Fishes (Class Sarcopterygii) Lungfish & Coelacanths n Have paired fins consist of muscular lobe 肌肉葉 n Supported by central core of bones with fully ar8culated joints n Lungfish have lungs and gills Ray-finned Fishes have bony rays Lobe-finned Fishes have bones inside fins  Vertebrates (2) Amphibians (Class Amphibia)(frogs & toads 蟾蜍) l >7k species l Larval stage in water, adult stage on land CharacterisIcs of Amphibians l Limbs n Tetrapods n Well-developed pelvic & pectoral girdles 骨盆和胸帶 for locomoIon l Smooth & nonscaly 無鱗片 skin n Kept moist by mucous glands n Water balance, respiraIon, temperature regulaIon through evapora8ve cooling l Lungs n Usually present in adults n RespiraIon supplemented by gaseous exchange through skin (cutaneous respira8on 皮膚呼吸) l Double-loop circulatory pathway n 3 chambered heart (1 ventricle & 2 atria) u Send blood to lungs and body u Limited mixing of oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood in the single ventricle of the 3 chambered heart (for amphibians and most repIles) l Sense organ n Sight, hearing, smell → suitable terrestrial life n Larger brain than fish, cerebral cortex 大腦皮質 more developed n Specialized tongue for catching prey n Eyelids for keeping the eyes moist n Sound produce larynx (voice box) l Ectothermic 變溫, can live in environment where temperature fluctuates greatly n Winter u InacIve and enter torpor 冬眠 n European common frog u Can survive at -6℃ l AquaIc reproducIon 水生繁殖 n Many return to water for reproducIon n Deposit sperm & egg into water → external ferIlizaIon u Egg protected by a jelly coat n Egg → tadpoles 蝌蚪 (aquaIc larvae with gills) → adults (breath air) n Some amphibians can pass the aquaIc larval stage and reproduce on land Living Amphibians l Salamanders and Newts 蠑螈 n Elongated bodies, long tail, usually 2 pairs of limbs n Carnivorous, feed on small invertebrates like insects l Frogs(batrachomorpha 蛙形類) and Toads 蟾蜍 n Adults no talis, head & trunk fused 頭和軀幹一體, long hindlimbs 後肢 for jumping n Carnivorous n Glands in skin secret poisons → protecIon against microbial infecIons 微 生物感染 l Caecilians 蚓螈 n No leg, sightless, worm shaped n Most burrow in moist soil, feeding on worms & other soil invertebrates n Some have folds of skin RepIle (Class RepIlia) l 20k species l Including birds CharacterisIc of RepIles l 2 pairs of limbs, 5 toes each (except snakes) n Climbing, running, padding, flying l Thick and dry skin n Impermeable to water → prevent water loss n Covered at least parIally by scales, many repIle molt 蛻皮 several Imes a year l Efficient breathing n Lungs more developed than amphibians n Expandable rib cage → assist breathing l Efficient circulaIon n Heart prevents mixing of blood, a spectrum divides the ventricle parIally / completely l Efficient excreIon n Well-devolved kidneys n Excrete uric acid, less water is needed to rid the body of nitrogenous wastes l Ectothermy n Most are ectotherms, can survive on a fracIon of the food per body weight required by endotherms 恆溫動物 (birds & mammals) n Ectothermic repIles warming themselves in the sun to maintain warm body temperature. l Well-adapted reproducIon n Sex separate n Internal ferIlizaIon → prevent sperm from drying n Shelled amnio8c egg AmnioIc Eggs l RepIle, birds, mammals are amniotes 羊膜 l Have 3 membranes + Yolk Sac n Chorion u Allow gas exchange n Amnion u Encloses embryo in fluid-filled cavity → prevent drying out and provides protecIon n Allantois u Stores excreted wastes from embryo  n Yolk Sac u Provide nutrient for the embryo RepIlian other than bird l Turtle and tortoises n Ribs and thoracic 肋骨和胸椎 vertebrae fused into a heavy shell n Lack teeth & have sharp beak l Lizards 蜥蜴 n Most have 4 clawed feet 爪足 n Carnivorous l Snakes n Lost limbs to adapt for burrowing n Carnivorous n Some are venomous 毒的 l Tuataras 喙頭蜥 n Third eye l Crocodilians n Long & powerful jaws n Muscular tail used as weapon and paddle 漿 Birds l PlenIful fossil record shows birds evolved from dinosaurs l Lack teeth, have vesIgial 退化 tails l SIll retain repIlian characterisIcs n AmnioIc eggs n Scales on the feet and lower legs l Crocodiles and birds share derived features n Skull opening in front of eyes n Clawed feet CharacterisIcs of birds l Feathers n Som down keep warm n Wing feather allow flight n Tail feather for steering l Modified skeleton n Collarbone 鎖骨 and many other bone are fused → more rigid skeleton n Sternum 胸骨 has a keel 龍骨 n Bones are thin & hollow l Modified respiraIon n Lungs are connected to air sac → lighten body l Endothemy n Generate internal heat n Using metabolic heat to maintain constant internal temperature, associated with efficient nervous, respiratory, circulatory systems l Well-developed sense organs & nervous system n Acute vison n InsInctual behavior Diversity of birds l Most can fly, like eagles l Some cannot fly, like penguins l Classified according to n 1. Beak type 2. Foot type 3. Habitat 4. Behavior Mammals (Class Mammalia) l Most large, land-dwelling vertebrates are mammals l ~5k species CharacterisIcs l Hair l Milk-producing mammary glands l Skeleton  n Skull accommodates a larger brain relaIve to body size n DifferenIated teeth l Internal organs n Efficient respiraIon and circulaIon n Double loop circulatory pathway with 4 chambered heart n Kidney adapted to conserve water n Highly-developed nervous system l Internal development in most mammals n The young are born alive amer a period of development in the uterus 子宮 n Protect the young and female can move acIvely Diversity of Mammals l Monotremes 單孔目動物 n Single urogenital opening 單一泌尿生殖開口 n Hard-shells amnioIc eggs n Egg-laying mammals u Duckbill platypus 鴨嘴獸 u Spiny anteaters 多刺食蟻獸 l Marsupials 有袋動物 n Females have an external body pouch where young complete development n Evolved from egg-laying mammal ancestor n In Australia, they are adapted to different way of life l Placental mammals (main group of mammals) n Placenta 胎盤 u Exchange of substances between maternal 母體 and fetal 胎兒 blood, waste to mother, nutrient to offspring n AcIve life n Acute sense n Brain enlarged n Not fully developed unIl for some Ime amer birth u A long period of dependency on the parents ‒ the young learn to take care of themselves u Inhabit various habitats