Optimizing Pineapple Waste Biochar for Mung Bean Growth PDF

“Optimizing Pineapple Waste Biochar as a Sustainable Soil Substitute for Enhanced Mung Bean Growth” ____________________________________________________ A Research Proposal Presented to the Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Strand Leyte National High School Tacloban City In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Subject Practical Research 2 (Quantitative Research) ____________________________________________________ Peñaranda, Kristin Chloe C., Nical, Kurt Nico V., Silvestrece, Clyde D., Orejola, Herlyn Kaye S., Ecija, Paulet B., Niones, Joyce Ann A., Paciencia, Genicka Larize P., Sabian, Felmera S., Onarosa, Sheila Marie E., Bagoyoro, Anthony Jesus V. Group 1 – C.L. Sylianco 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Climate change has continued to affect our society in many ways. In particular, it has been presumed that agriculture specifically will be substantially affected (Mendelsohn, 2009). Agriculture serves an important role in our society as one of our main sources of food. However, while it does play an important role, it is crucial to know that agriculture also contributes to approximately 20% of the increase of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, specifically carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) gasses (Aydinalp & Cresser, 2008). For example, composting large amounts of organic waste such as those resulting from agriculture are known to be one of the causes to negatively affect air quality due to the release of the aforementioned CO2, as well as ammonia (NH3) gasses (Bass et al., 2016). This undermines the effectiveness of composting, especially as a solution to waste management in larger cities. With this in mind, studies have taken efforts in formulating new solutions to mitigate GHG emissions and one such solution is by utilizing biochar as an alternative substrate to cultivate crops (Kammann et al., 2017). Biochar, by definition, is a product of a process called pyrolysis where a biomass is heated in the absence or in little concentrations of oxygen to acquire a purely carbon-based material, typically with the purpose of application in soil to improve its agronomic and environmental qualities (Maia et al., 2011). Utilizing biochar and incorporating it to create substrates to cultivate plants is not a novel idea, however, it is worth noting that the specific biomass material affects the properties of the resulting biochar. Also, biochar is a material that is able to hold more nutrients as opposed to traditional compost or organic fertilizer that we apply to plants, resulting in the increase 2 of C content as well as improving water and nutrient retention within soil (Bohari et al., 2020). Knowing this, it would be beneficial for this study to utilize agricultural waste as biomass material as it is a sustainable and eco-friendly way to use what would otherwise be simply discarded waste (Kwapinski et al., 2010). Particularly, this study intends to utilize pineapple-based (PPB) waste as the biomass material as it is an excessive yet underexplored form of agricultural waste within the context of using PPB biochar in agriculture. It is especially excessive in the Eastern Visayas region that ranks 9th in the Philippines in the context of pineapple (Ananas comosus) production with around 11,919 kgs/hectare across 675 hectares (Agri Numerical, 2020). Considering that, on average, around 25% of the pineapple fruit will become waste after processing, pineapple byproducts are evidently excessive within the region (Ali et al., 2020). PPB waste which include the leaves, crown, and peel, are generated by many countries, including the Philippines, which pose potential risk to ecosystems and even as far as contributing partially to climate change if left irresponsibly (Foo & Hameed, 2011). Thus, converting this waste into biochar is one solution to amend this problem. Biochar, particularly PPB biochar, is a good alternative substrate material due to their high porosity as well as water and nutrient retention properties which is desirable for plant cultivation due to it naturally sequestering carbon and decreasing other GHG emissions (Lehmann, 2007). Mung bean (Vigna radiata) is a food ingredient that is very accessible to most families, particularly those who do not come from a lot of money. They are from a family of plants called legumes. Vigna radiata specifically originate from India; however, it is commonly cultivated in Asia—particularly in the Philippines. In the Philippines, the plant is locally called “munggo” and it is one of the most identifiable foods within Filipino cuisine (Lim, 2011). 3 Having a comparatively shorter growth time of 30 days and maturing as early as 60 days after planting, Vigna radiata are held in high regard by local farmers as one of the most sustainable and fast-growing plants, which are typically farmed right after rice harvests (McLelland, 2010). Vigna radiata are also vitamin-rich foods which is why they are notable as one of the most common staples in Filipino cuisine. The fast-growing and short-duration nature of Vigna radiata alongside its nutritional value is why it is an important crop, particularly in a Filipino context. However, there are unfortunately very few studies utilizing PPB biochar, particularly in the context of its application as an alternative plant substrate. Thus, this research study intends to use Vigna radiata as its model plant for testing the effectiveness of PPB biochar. This study will help in providing more knowledge with regards to environment-friendly agricultural practices to mitigate the worsening of global warming, while tackling issues such as the disposal of PPB waste or agricultural waste in general. Statement of the Problem Pineapple-based (PPB) waste has become an excessive organic waste material yet it is underexplored in the context of PPB biochar being utilized as an alternative substrate, particularly in cultivating mung beans (Vigna radiata). Recently, biochar has also been shown to enhance the properties of soil, including nutrient availability and water holding capacity, which could be quite helpful in growing other crops as well. Because of that, this study intends to investigate the effectiveness of utilizing PPB biochar as an alternative substrate for the cultivation of Vigna radiata. Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions: 4 1. How does the growth rate of Vigna radiata in pure (100%) PPB biochar substrate, 1:1 (50%, 50%) PPB biochar-soil substrate, and pure (100%) traditional soil substrate compare to each other, particularly: 1.1. How is the plant height affected?; 1.2. How is the leaf size affected?; 1.3. How is the root length affected?; 1.4. How is the mung bean yield affected? 2. How does the PPB biochar impact soil properties, specifically: 2.1. Does it affect water retention?; 2.2. Does it affect pH level?; 2.3. And does it affect nutrient availability, when used as a partial or full substitute for soil? 3. Is there a significant difference in terms of plant growth in Vigna radiata using PPB-biochar substrate? 4. Is there a significant difference in terms of soil properties of substrate by incorporating PPB biochar? These questions will inform the researchers if varying ratios of PPB biochar to soil have any influence on mung bean growth, thereby providing farmers with insights into sustainable and efficient substrate alternatives that could enhance crop development and agricultural sustainability. Research Hypothesis Through a comprehensive review of existing research and literature on the use of biochar as an alternative substrate, particularly with a focus on agricultural crops, the researchers have formulated a set of hypotheses to guide their investigation. This review has also provided valuable background knowledge on the potential mechanisms by 5 which pineapple waste biochar could impact key growth parameters in mung bean plants such as plant height, leaf size, root length, and biomass accumulation. 1. There is a significant difference in mean growth parameters between the Vigna radiata samples grown in 2:0 250 g PPB biochar substrate, 1:1 250 g PPB biochar-soil substrate, and 0:2 250 g traditional loam soil. 2. There is a significant difference in mean soil properties between the 2:0 250 g PPB biochar substrate, 1:1 250 g PPB biochar-soil substrate, and 250 g 0:2 traditional loam soil. Conceptual Framework Figure 1. Conceptual framework explaining how all the variables interconnect. The figure displays the conceptual framework of the study, highlighting both the independent variable and the dependent variable. The primary aim of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of various mixture ratios of Pineapple-based biochar and loam soil on the growth of Mung beans (Vigna radiata). This study utilizes the Independent Variable-Dependent Variable or the IV-DV Model. 6 The framework of the study consists of several key variables. On the left side, the independent variable is the Pineapple-Based Biochar (PPB) Soil Mixture Ratios. The dependent variable, found on the right side, is the plant growth of Vigna radiata. In addition, there are other variables that play important roles in the study: the moderator variable, the mediator variable, and the control variables. The moderator variable, “Weather,” is positioned at the top of the framework. It can influence the outcome of Plant Growth (dependent variable) but is not affected by the PPB-Soil Mixture Ratios (independent variable). The mediating variable, labeled “Soil Nutrients and pH,” is located at the bottom. This variable can affect Plant Growth (dependent variable) and is also influenced by the PPB-Soil Mixture Ratios (independent variable). Lastly, the control variables, which include “Seed Quality, Water Frequency, Sunlight, and Temperature,” are maintained at constant levels to minimize their impact on the study’s outcomes. Scope and Delimitations The scope of this study will focus primarily on the plant growth of mung bean plants with mixing ratios of PPB biochar and loam soil of 2:0 to test for the effectiveness of PPB biochar as a standalone growth medium, 1:1 to test the potential of PPB biochar as an additive to soil, and 0:2 to serve as a control group. This study will be conducted for a total of 30 days and weekly observations will be made to assess the plant’s growth in different ratios of the growth media mixture. The delimitations of the study include focusing solely on Vigna radiata, excluding other plant species. This study will only focus on the plant growth of the Vigna radiata across a fixed period of 30 days. Also, this study will only cover until the prescribed 7 growth stage of 30 days. Finally, this study will only measure the plant’s growth in terms of plant height, leaf length, root length and amount of bean pods present on the plant. Significance of the Study This study will be conducted to determine the effectiveness of different mixture ratios of PPB biochar and loam soil on Vigna radiata growth. This also seeks to determine if it is worth using PPB biochar, either on its own or as an additive to loam soil, in terms of growth of Vigna radiata. The study’s findings will be a vital contribution to the following: Farmers Through determining the effectiveness of PPB biochar mixed with loam soil as an alternative substrate for mung bean cultivation, farmers’ agricultural practices could be adjusted for maximization of crop yields as well as repurposing their agricultural waste in an eco-friendly manner. Agricultural Researchers This will help them obtain data on how PPB biochar mixed with loam soil impacts plant growth and develop better practices for sustainable agriculture. Botanists This study will help them deeper understand Vigna radiata’s physiology and the effect of PPB biochar, or biochar in general, towards its growth. Environmental Managers This study will help them better understand the effect of PPB biochar substrate towards plant growth, which will help in evaluating and managing agricultural waste in agricultural areas and utilizing them to decrease waste through an eco-friendly manner. 8 Future Researchers This study could greatly contribute to the existing body of knowledge that future researchers will refer to, especially those who will choose to pursue topics of this kind. Definition of Terms This section provides clear definitions of key terms and concepts used throughout the study. Each term is defined as it pertains specifically to the context of this research, ensuring that readers share a common understanding of specialized vocabulary. Defining these terms facilitates accurate interpretation of the findings and discussions presented in this paper. Biochar Is a product of a process called pyrolysis where a biomass is heated in the absence or in little concentrations of oxygen to acquire a purely carbon-based material, typically with the purpose of application in soil to improve its agronomic and environmental qualities (Maia et al., 2011). In this study, it refers to the research sample that is to be incorporated into the substrate mixture ratios. Pyrolysis The chemical decomposition of organic (carbon-based) materials through the application of heat (Boslaugh, 2024). In this study, it refers to the process by which the researchers acquire the PPB biochar. Agricultural waste Agricultural waste is defined as waste left over after cultivating and processing agricultural products like fruits, vegetables, dairy and grains, as well as meat, poultry and crops (Obi et al., 2016). In this study, it refers specifically to excess pineapple-based waste. 9 Pineapple-based waste Is agricultural waste that consists of the peel, core, and leaves of a pineapple (Ananas comosus) that are often discarded after the fruit is processed for consumption (McCance et al., 2021). In this study, it refers to the biomass utilized to create the biochar to be used in the experiments. Substrate Everything where a plant can grow in or on is referred to as substrate (Das et al., 2022). In this study, it refers to the medium in which the mung bean plants are grown. Particularly, it is the varying mixture ratios of PPB biochar and soil. Legumes Leguminosae is one of the largest and most important family of flowering plants constituting 650 to 750 genera, 18,000 to 19,000 species of herbs, climbers, shrubs and trees. This family is broadly defined by the podded fruits (legumes) (Ahmed and Hasan, 2014). In this study, it refers to the family from which mung beans (Vigna radiata) originate from. Mung bean (Vigna radiata) This refers to a legume plant belonging to the pea family (Fabaceae), cultivated for its seed and sprout portions (Britannica, 2020). It is a fast-growing erect or semi-erect annual plant with a sturdy taproot. In this study, this is referred to as the subject for measuring the effectiveness of PPB biochar as an alternative substrate in terms of the plant’s growth. 10 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter presents relevant literature through a collection of works and studies from various sources such as journals, online data, dissertations and theses, and research projects as they relate to Organic Waste Management and Sustainable Agriculture, Biochar Production, Pineapple-based Waste Biochar, Biochar Application in Agriculture, Mung beans, and Integration of Pineapple-based Waste Biochar in Mung bean Cultivation. Organic Waste Management and Sustainable Agriculture Organic waste includes all the products manufactured in agricultural, food processing industries, households, and industries that are biodegradable. Important groups of organic waste include food wastes, yard trimmings, agricultural residues, food processing waste, and animal manure. It has increasingly generated in volume over time as populations globally have increased and people are becoming more urbanized that has resulted in significant environmental problems. The most significant impact of organic waste on the environment is its greenhouse gas contribution in the form of methane (CH₄), which forms when organic materials break down anaerobically in landfills. Methane is such a powerful greenhouse gas it is about 28 times worse than carbon dioxide in trapping heat in the atmosphere (Jiang & Xu, 2020). Organic waste soils, in addition, also burn or dispose of in open space contaminates and degrades the soil. For instance, uncollected agricultural wastes may provide nasty chemicals to the soil, hence reducing its fertility (Singh & Pandey, 2019). Organic waste also threatens the quality of water. It usually runs into waters from agricultural residues and food waste, eventually resulting in nutrient overload and eutrophication. This leads to the depletion of oxygen from the water bodies and results in harming life in the water (UNEP, 2018). 11 Despite this negative impact of organic waste, it can be a resource if managed rightly. Organic wastes can be changed into useful products just like in the case of compost that enhances soil and water holding capacity, also reduces the need for artificial fertilizers by reusing such materials through composting, anaerobic digestion, or even biogas generation (Bernstad & la Cour Jansen, 2012). This has further resulted in increased emissions reduction of GHGs as well as more sustainable agricultural practices. Thus, the proper handling of organic waste would not only counterbalance the negative impact of organic waste but also make organic waste an advantage for sustainable development and agriculture (Gustavsson et al., 2011). The circular economy is an economic system that pursues the reduction of waste, maximal usage of resources available, and other practices like reuse, repair, refurbishing, remanufacturing, or recycling (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017). On the other hand, the old linear economy follows a 'take, make, dispose' model. However, the circular economy aims to close the loop of product life cycles by minimizing environmental effects and maximizing the efficiency of resource use (Kirchherr et al., 2017). It supports long life design of products lasting for an extended period, reuses, and recycles materials that retain resources in use for the maximum time possible (Murray et al., 2017). Sustainable waste management involves the responsible handling of waste to minimize its environmental impact through waste reduction, recycling, composting, and energy recovery methods (Kaza et al., 2018). Integration of principles of the circular economy with waste management would involve diminishing reliance on landfills. Such a system is expected to promote sustainability (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017). These theories will reduce carbon footprints and save resources and ensure there is a sound, sustainable economy in the future (Kirchherr et al., 2017; Murray et al., 2017). Around the world, a sizable amount of family income comes from agriculture. Agriculture is a less common source of income in wealthy nations, but it benefits 12 everyone worldwide, directly or indirectly. People depend on it to support their families, make a living, and launch a business, no matter how small (Dorosh and Thurlow, 2016; Abhilash et al., 2021). Regarding this, there are several environmental advantages wherein organic wastes plays a significant role in achieving a sustainable agriculture. And turning food scraps and other organic waste into compost has a great impact in it, such as enhancing soil health, lowering greenhouse gas emissions, recycling nutrients, and lessening the effects of droughts. Organic waste also improves the physical (texture, structure, bulk density, and water-holding capacity), chemical (nutrient availability, cation exchange capacity, reduced aluminum toxicity, and allelopathy), and biological (nitrogen mineralization bacteria, dinitrogen fixation, mycorrhizae fungi, and microbial biomass) properties of soil, it is essential for cropping systems to remain sustainable. As a result of the increasing demand for agricultural products on a global scale, numerous career opportunities have emerged (Mathlouthi et al., 2022). A significant portion of many people's jobs include agriculture. In both rich and developing nations, the agriculture sector has provided many people with a living through suppliers, drainage systems, construction projects, and other means (Bennett et al., 2013). There are many advantages of organic farming to agriculture, and its importance cannot be understated. It offers fundamental, financial, and developmental advantages. Every nation in the world benefits from it in some way, and it plays a vital role in the way of life of both developed and developing nations (Christiaensen et al., 2011; Dubey et al., 2022). But due to its dependence on unpredictable weather patterns, such as late monsoons, droughts, and inadequate irrigation infrastructure, agriculture's development rate has varied. The issues posed by climate change and global warming require the development of agricultural technology techniques. Since agriculture is essentially a land-based business, the size and quality of the land have a considerable impact on agricultural output and farmer income. Thus, the need for the next green revolution has 13 arisen. More farmers, scientists, and researchers are looking for innovative ways to improve soil quality, absorb carbon, reduce their negative effects on the environment, and generate primary revenue. As a result, varied, integrated, and alternative cropping systems are gaining popularity. The main goals of diversification in agricultural systems are to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) (McDaniel et al., 2014), enhance soil health (Sanderson et al., 2013), lower extreme financial risk (Helmers et al., 2001), boost total yields (Bennett et al., 2012), improve resource usage efficiency (Tilman et al., 2002), and lessen hazardous environmental externalities (Davis et al., 2012). Cash crops and cover crops can be used to boost crop density. Reducing total N inputs can improve soil quality (Drinkwater and Snapp, 2007; Entz et al., 2002) and boost the yield potential of other crops, even though many types of cover crops aren't employed economically (Franzluebbers, 2007). Lastly, cover crops can be used as feed crops in an agricultural system to increase revenue (Martens and Entz, 2011). Biochar Production from Organic Waste Biochar is a carbon-rich, stable material produced through the pyrolysis of organic materials such as plant biomass, agricultural waste, or forestry residues under limited oxygen conditions, typically at temperatures between 300-700°C. It is primarily used as a soil amendment, but also has applications in water treatment, carbon sequestration, and energy production. Biochar is characterized by its high carbon content (typically 50-90%), which makes it durable and able to persist in soils for centuries, contributing to carbon sequestration (Lehmann et al., 2011). Its highly porous structure, with a surface area ranging from 100-2000 m²/g, enhances its ability to retain water and nutrients, improving soil aeration, microbial activity, and water retention (Yuan et al., 2011). Biochar often has an alkaline pH, which helps neutralize acidic soils and improves nutrient availability for plants, particularly in regions with acidic soils (Chan et 14 al., 2007). The nutrient content of biochar, which can include potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium, varies depending on the feedstock and production conditions, making it a valuable soil fertility enhancer (Lehmann et al., 2011). It is chemically stable, resists decomposition, and can remain in the soil for long periods, enhancing soil quality and helping to store carbon over time (Lehmann & Joseph, 2015). In addition to its carbon sequestration potential, biochar can reduce the release of greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrogen oxides from soils, contributing to environmental sustainability (Woolf et al., 2010). Furthermore, biochar has been shown to improve soil structure, increase microbial activity, and reduce nutrient leaching, making it especially beneficial in poor soils or areas suffering from desertification, thereby improving agricultural productivity (Rondon et al., 2007). Its high surface area and adsorption properties also make biochar effective in water filtration applications, where it can remove contaminants like heavy metals, organic pollutants, and pathogens (Pietikäinen et al., 2015). The production of biochar is primarily accomplished through the thermochemical processes of pyrolysis and carbonization, which influence its properties such as carbon content, stability, and porosity (Lehmann & Joseph, 2015). Pyrolysis refers to the thermal degradation of organic materials at temperatures between 300°C and 700°C in the absence or limited presence of oxygen, breaking down complex organic molecules into biochar, bio-oil, and syngas, with the resulting biochar being stable and useful for soil amendment and carbon sequestration (Lehmann et al., 2011; Yuan et al., 2011). This process is essential for carbon sequestration, as biochar produced through pyrolysis can remain in the soil for hundreds or even thousands of years (Lehmann & Joseph, 2015). Carbonization, which is the final step of pyrolysis, occurs at temperatures above 400°C, expelling volatile compounds and leaving behind a carbon-rich solid residue (Biederman & Harpole, 2013); this stage increases the carbon content of biochar and enhances its 15 stability, with higher temperatures generally yielding biochar with greater carbon content and resistance to microbial degradation (Schimmelpfennig & Glaser, 2012). The porosity and surface area of biochar, crucial for its soil-enhancing abilities, are also influenced by carbonization, with higher temperatures resulting in biochar with larger pore sizes that improve water and nutrient retention and provide habitats for soil microbes (Biederman & Harpole, 2013; Lehmann et al., 2011). The properties of biochar are also influenced by the choice of feedstock, with different materials such as wood, agricultural waste, or animal manure producing biochar with varying carbon content, nutrient profiles, and surface areas, which are important for its applications in soil enhancement, water filtration, or carbon sequestration (Yuan et al., 2011; Chan et al., 2007). Pyrolysis and carbonization processes are also critical in terms of environmental impact, as biochar production has the potential to mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon in the soil for extended periods, while the energy recovery from syngas and bio-oil produced during pyrolysis offers a renewable energy source (Woolf et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2011). Biochar has properties that vary significantly depending on factors such as feedstock type, pyrolysis temperature, time, atmospheric conditions, and post-production treatments, with wood-based biochars generally having higher carbon content and stability (Yuan et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2014), and pyrolysis temperature influencing the carbon content and porosity, with higher temperatures leading to more stable but less porous biochars (Chen et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2013), while longer pyrolysis times may increase carbon content but reduce surface area (Laird et al., 2010; Brodowski et al., 2005); the atmosphere in the pyrolysis reactor also plays a crucial role, with low-oxygen conditions resulting in higher carbon content and lower ash (Bridgeman et al., 2008; Figueiredo et al., 2011), and post-production treatments like washing or chemical activation can modify biochar’s properties for applications in soil amendment or pollutant removal (Zhang et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2013). 16 The potential of organic waste as a feedstock for biochar production has been widely recognized, as materials such as agricultural residues (e.g., rice husks, wheat straw, and corn stover), food waste, forestry residues (including wood chips, sawdust, and bark), municipal solid waste (MSW), and animal manure offer diverse benefits, with studies indicating that biochar produced from these feedstocks can improve soil properties, enhance water retention, sequester carbon, and contribute essential nutrients, with agricultural residues often yielding biochars rich in carbon and with moderate surface areas suitable for soil amendment (Yuan et al., 2015; Liang et al., 2006), food waste biochar demonstrating higher surface areas and the ability to absorb pollutants (Zhao et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2014), forestry residues providing biochars with high porosity and beneficial impacts on soil structure and water retention (Enders et al., 2012; Lehmann et al., 2011), MSW-derived biochars exhibiting unique characteristics such as high ash content and mineral concentrations useful for heavy metal adsorption (Cheng et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2015), and manure-based biochars showing potential for improving soil fertility due to their nutrient content (Koch et al., 2012; Lu et al., 2014), while also highlighting the challenges posed by feedstock variability, moisture content, and the need for optimized pyrolysis conditions to ensure consistent biochar quality and maximize its environmental and agricultural applications. Pineapple-based Waste as a Potential Biochar Feedstock Every year, millions of tons of fruit waste are generated globally from residual agriculture, and one of these tons of fruit waste is the pineapple peel. It is essential to find alternative uses to enhance their overall value and mitigate environmental damage. According to Mehraj et al., (2024), the peel of pineapple or also known as “Ananas comosus L. Merr.”, which is often overlooked as waste, has recently attracted considerable attention due to its potential applications. This by-product is rich in 17 essential nutrients, including calcium, potassium, vitamin C, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and water. These qualities contribute positively to digestive health, facilitate weight management, and support overall balanced nutrition. Research has shown that pineapple peel has several pharmacological properties, including potential anti-parasitic effects, relief from constipation, and benefits for individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). There is a growing effort to promote the use of pineapple peel as a valuable resource instead of considering it merely as waste. In addition, with the similar study of Susmita et al., (2024), initiatives are underway to encourage the use of pineapple peel as a valuable asset instead of just waste. Its uses extend from making vinegar, alcohol, and citric acid to creating various food items, such as squash, syrup, jelly, and pickles. Many students may not be aware that renewable biological materials can be transformed into a variety of bioproducts and biofuels through a biorefinery process, which presents a more sustainable alternative to conventional crude oil refineries. By leveraging waste from pineapples, a plant material that many students recognize, a biorefinery can effectively demonstrate the benefits of a circular bioeconomy. Pineapple waste comprises the peels, cores, and leaves that are often discarded after the fruit is processed for consumption. These "leftovers" or "residues" are rich in sugars and lignocellulosic biomass, which can be utilized to create value-added bioproducts and biofuels (McCance et al., 2021). According to García et al., (2020), the production of biochar serves as a waste management solution for agro-businesses and is commonly employed for carbon sequestration and enhancing soil fertility. The ideal feedstock for biochar production typically consists of materials rich in lignin and cellulose, or a blend of industrial and animal waste. However, waste products abundant in soluble sugars, pectin, and polysaccharides, like fruit waste, have seen limited use even though they are readily available. Additionally, there have been reports of harmful substances being released 18 when untreated biochars are applied as soil amendments. The researcher investigated whether composting could eliminate these toxicants and enhance the properties of biochar. They generated biochar from the peels of oranges and pineapples through pyrolysis and assessed the physical and chemical attributes of both untreated and composted biochars. The analysis indicates that untreated biochar has a high content of soluble salts and carbon, possesses an alkaline character, and exhibits high porosity. The composting process elevated the pH, micronutrient levels, exchangeable cations, oxygen-based functional groups, and labile carbon, while decreasing the presence of PAHs and dioxins. The findings demonstrate that orange and pineapple peels are appropriate raw materials for biochar production, but should be composted prior to their use as soil amendments. According to Frempong et al., (2024), biochar is a widely utilized soil amendment for sustainable farming practices. The impact of biochar on agricultural productivity relies on the biochar's quality, which is determined by the type of feedstock and the conditions of pyrolysis. Continuous and excessive use of inorganic fertilizers can cause soil acidification, affect soil biota and biogeochemical processes, and damage the environment. In addition, rapid mineralization of organic matter and the resulting loss of nutrients through leaching or gaseous form reduces crop yields. With the rapidly growing consumer interest in organic pineapple products, organic fertilizers offer the potential for profitable pineapple production. Compost is an organic soil amendment made by decomposing and recycling organic matter. The application of biochar along with compost or inorganic NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) fertilizer substantially boosted the plant height and leaf count of pineapple plants, leading to enhanced fruit yield of the three pineapple varieties (sugar loaf, MD2, and smooth cayenne) at maturity compared to the control and sole applications of biochar, compost, and inorganic NPK fertilizer. 19 Additionally, the findings in the study of Frempong et al., (2024) indicated that biochar, used alone or alongside compost or inorganic NPK fertilizer, can enhance soil quality and boost pineapple yield. Using biochar alongside compost or inorganic NPK enhances the growth and yield of pineapples. Biochar Application in Agriculture Biochar possesses a very porous structure, which provides a significant surface area—an essential characteristic for sorption processes—and may aid in the sequestration of organic pollutants or heavy metals in contaminated soils (Nkoh et al., 2022). Furthermore, biochar can enhance soil fertility by altering the chemical and physical characteristics of the soil. The alkaline pH of biochar, along with the presence of carbonates and negatively charged phenolic, carboxyl, and hydroxyl groups on its surface, may elevate soil pH, whereas soil acidity is linked to reduced fertility. The significant variability in how soil microbial communities respond to biochar application can be partly attributed to the physicochemical characteristics of biochar (linked to the feedstock and pyrolysis conditions), which varied widely across different studies. The properties of biochar ashes, including porosity, pH, carbon content, and mineral element concentrations, are significantly influenced by the conditions of pyrolysis and the type of feedstock used (Tomczyk et al., 2020). Under comparable usage conditions, differences in these characteristics should impact soil microbial communities in various ways. Initially, given that soil pH is a key factor influencing microbial abundance and diversity, changes in biochar pH might affect soil pH in various ways and thereby alter soil microbial communities. The growth of industries and human actions have led to a decline in the quality and ability of soil to support plant growth. There is a growing focus on restoring soils with low fertility to boost agricultural productivity and sustainability. Biochar, a carbonaceous 20 material, is increasingly used in the remediation of the anthropogenically polluted soils and the restoration of their ecological functions. It is made from organic matter on purpose, and is commonly used to enhance soil health by holding onto nutrients and possibly making them more available to plants (Deshoux et al.,2023). The use of biochar is presently regarded as a method to enhance soil quality and fertility for agricultural yield, offering ecosystem services such as the immobilization and transformation of pollutants, while also helping to combat climate change through carbon sequestration. Biochar is a durable carbon-rich substance produced when feedstock is heated in a sealed container with minimal or no oxygen present. Feedstocks for biochar production include wood-derived products, organic and industrial byproducts, and plant materials. Due to the varying feedstock and differences in pyrolysis conditions (temperature, speed, duration), biochars possess distinct properties. In addition to its capacity to sequester carbon, experimental findings indicate that the application of biochar modifies soil characteristics. Because of the differences in biochar characteristics, its effects on soil properties are not uniform. Incorporating biochar into soil has been demonstrated to enhance soil pH, cation exchange capacity, and the levels of extractable nutrients like Na, K, Ca, and Mg, all of which support nutrient retention and improve soil fertility. Furthermore, incorporating biochar into soil may lead to alterations in the composition and structure of soil microbial communities, along with essential soil processes like carbon mineralization and nutrient transformation. Biochar impacts not only the chemical and biological properties of soil, but also its physical characteristics, enhancing soil structure and the physical environment for plant development. The physical and chemical characteristics of biochar are essential for comprehending its performance and mechanisms in enhancing soil fertility. One potential primary mechanism for enhancing yield could be the enhancement of soil water retention 21 capacity following biochar application. Biochar possesses significant total porosity, enabling it to retain water within small pores to enhance water holding capacity, while also facilitating water infiltration from the surface to the topsoil via larger pores following heavy rainfall. (Peake et al., 2014) suggested that the use of biochar could enhance available water capacity by more than 22%. (Nelissen et al., 2015) showed that applying biochar could enhance the available water capacity from 0.12 to 0.13 m3 m−3. Additionally, the development and durability of soil aggregates may enhance crop yields and help prevent soil degradation. The ability of soil to aggregate was enhanced by 8 to 36 % following the addition of rice husk biochar. They additionally noted that using rice husk biochar could enhance soil pore structure parameters by 20%, improve shear strength, and reduce soil swelling by 11.1%. Moreover, biochar has the potential to improve compaction by more than 10 %, lower bulk density from 1.47 to 1.44 mg m−3 and enhance porosity from 0.43 to 0.44 m3 m−3 (Nelissen et al., 2015). In general, the enhanced physical characteristics of soil, including bulk density, capacity for water retention, and ability to aggregate, could enhance the retention of water and nutrients, directly benefiting soil fertility. Using biochar may elevate the pH level of the soil. Wang et al. (2014) stated that biochar made from rice husk raised the pH of tea garden soil (acidic soil) from 3.33 to 3.63. The pH of agricultural soil rose by nearly 1 pH unit for the biochar treatment derived from mixed hardwood (Quercus spp. and Carya spp.). The rise in soil pH may alter the nutrient forms and enhance the adsorption of certain elements by the roots. Cation exchange capacity serves as an indirect indicator of how well soils can hold water and nutrients. (Laird et al., 2010) demonstrated that the biochar treatments notably enhanced cation exchange capacity by 4 to 30 % compared to the controls. Likewise, the cation exchange capacity of the extensively weathered soil rose from 7.41 to 10.8 cmol kg−1 following biochar treatment derived from Leucaena leucocephala (Jien and 22 Wang, 2013). Additionally, the rise in exchangeable cations in the treated soils indicated enhanced soil fertility and nutrient retention, likely due to the large specific surface area and abundance of carboxylic groups present in the biochar. The levels of the extractable nutrient elements (e.g., Na, K, Ca, and Mg) may rise following the application of biochar. Wang et al. (2014) demonstrated that the levels of extractable K, Ca, Na, and Mg roughly rose between 60 and 670 % following the addition of biochar. For instance, the potassium concentration in the soil rose from 42 to 324 mg kg−1 (Wang et al. 2014). Moreover, there is an increasing interest in using biochar to manage soil biota, and even minor alterations in soil biota caused by biochar application are of significant concern. Several mechanisms might clarify how biochar could influence microorganisms in soils: (1) alterations in nutrient availability; (2) shifts in other microbial communities; (3) modifications in plant-microbe signaling; and (4) habitat creation and protection from hyphal grazers. The soil food web significantly influences microbial properties. Moreover, the trophic structure of the soil food web was greatly influenced by the amount, quality, and distribution of organic matter. Although the production rates of soil organic matter are slower than other processes in the carbon cycles, its relative stability against microbial decomposition aids in the accumulation of soil organic matter. Mung Bean Cultivation and Its Nutritional Value Mung bean, also known as green gram (Vigna radiata L.) is a nutritious legume that grows quickly in warm climates and is commonly grown in various countries in Asia, East Africa, and Australia. However, it is mainly cultivated and consumed in Asia, particularly in Southeast Asian countries, which makes it very abundant in the Philippines (Hou et al., 2019). It is widely grown in the country and serves as a source of food, feed, green manure, and industrial materials (Rosales et al., n.d.). It holds a crucial 23 role in various cereal-based agricultural systems due to its nitrogen-fixing capability and adaptability to adapt to diverse climatic conditions (Pratap et al., 2021). This legume serves as an important crop in many countries across the world, holding significant roles in various fields. Vigna radiata is rich in balanced nutrients, featuring protein, dietary fiber, minerals, vitamins, and substantial levels of bioactive compounds (Hou et al., 2019). They are known for their excellent nutrition, containing around 20%-25% protein of dry mass. Their main polypeptides are globulin (60%) and albumin (25%). Hence, the consumption of Vigna radiata today is on the rise alongside other cereals (Tang et al., 2014; Kudre et al., 2013). It has been consumed as a diet worldwide and plays a vital role in human nutrition, especially as a good source of protein (20.97–32.6%) and active compounds. The Vigna radiata protein has been identified as an effectively excellent source of amino acids, and the essential amino acids in particular, in which many kinds of cereals are deficient (Nair et al., 2013). Vigna radiata and sprouts are commonly consumed as vegetable, fresh salad, or simply as a common food in countries including the Philippines (Tang et al., 2014; as cited by Ganesan & Xu, 2018). It is also great in detoxification and alleviating heat stroke and reducing swelling during the hot climates. Moreover, its paste has shown potential to treat skin conditions like eczema, acne, dermatitis, and in reducing itchiness (Liu, 2014). However, despite its abundance, cultivation of Vigna radiata also has challenges and difficulties. Some of the biotic factors affecting the constraint of mung bean growth are the major insect-pests such as bruchids, whitefly, and aphids. Some key abiotic stresses affecting its growth are drought, waterlogging, salinity, and heat stress (Nair et al., 2019). With these, biochar can help enhance its growth and yield as it has shown to have potential to foster more nutrients to crop and increase crop productivity (Pan et al., 2009; Al-Wabel et al., 2018; as cited by Jiang et al., 2024). 24 Integration of Pineapple-based Biochar in Mung Bean Cultivation Successful Vigna radiata growth can be assured when the essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are present (Yin et al., 2018). Biochar, on the other hand, is composed of these essential elements to ensure proper growth of mung beans. It can supply nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium—which are the key elements to a bountiful yield of crop production (Hossain, 2020). As per the study of Farhangi-Abriz (2022), biochar has improved the overall condition of leguminous plants. More specifically, Saxena et al. (2017) found that biochar from biomass waste influenced the overall growth of Vigna radiata positively. This can be supported by the study of Rab et al. (2016) which stated that the application of biochar improved mung bean yield. On the other hand, Bohari et al. (2020) found that the mineral contents of carbonized biochar from pineapple leaf waste such as K, N, S, Mg, and Ca increased from their initial concentrations in the feedstock, Similarly, a study by Hanyabui (2024); Jos (2023) found that the application of biochar derived from pineapple waste as a soil amendment increased growth and yield of pineapple varieties. While studies show the biochar’s benefit for general crop productivity and soil enhancement, there remains a significant gap on exploring the use of pineapple-based biochar for Vigna radiata cultivation. Most studies focus on the effect of biochar—not specifically derived from pineapple waste—on mung bean cultivation; and some focus on pineapple-based biochar’s impact on pineapple crop. Addressing these gaps could pave the way to new insights into sustainable agricultural practices. 25 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Research Locale The study will be conducted in the municipality of Palo, Leyte. The processing of the pineapple-based waste into biochar through pyrolysis will be conducted at Barangay Salvacion, Palo. The experiment will be carried out in Barangay Salvacion in Palo, Leyte. Research Samples This section will describe the materials that will be used in the study, including their sources, quantities, and transportation to the designated testing location. The samples will be carefully selected to ensure their relevance to the research objectives, and all preparations will be conducted to maintain consistency and reliability for the planned experiments. Mung beans (Vigna radiata) seeds An estimated amount of 36 Vigna radiata seeds will be procured from a local store in Tacloban City, Leyte. After securing in a plastic bag, these will be transported to Barangay Salvacion, Palo for experimentation. Pineapple-based (PPB) waste An estimated amount of 4 kg of PPB waste will be acquired from local pineapple vendors at Tacloban City Public Market. These will be secured within an empty sack and transported to Barangay Salvacion, Palo for processing into biochar through pyrolysis. Loam soil 26 An estimated amount of 5 kg of traditional loam soil will be acquired from a local farm at Palo, Leyte. These will also be secured within an empty sack and transported to Barangay Salvacion, Palo to be utilized for the mixture ratios of PPB-biochar to soil substrates. Research Design Vigna radiata plants were used and laid out using the Completely Randomized Design (CRD) arranged in three (3) replicates with three (3) treatment combinations of PPB biochar and loam soil, specifically: 2:0 250 g PPB biochar, 1:1 250 g PPB biochar-soil, and 0:2 250 g loam soil, respectively. Randomization was done using the lottery method. Figure 2. Designation of treatments and samples in the replicates using CRD T1S1 T2S2 T3S7 T1S4 T2S3 T3S5 T1S6 T2S8 T3S9 LEGEND: Tn = Treatment Number Sn = Sample Number Treatment 1 (T1): 2:0 ratio of PPB biochar and loam soil (250 g PPB biochar) Treatment 2 (T2): 1:1 ratio of PPB biochar and loam soil (125 g PPB biochar, 125 g loam soil) Treatment 3 (T3): 0:2 ratio of PPB biochar and loam soil (250 g loam soil) Research Procedure This section outlines the step-by-step process that will be followed to conduct the study. It includes the experimental setup, the preparation of samples, and the 27 preparation and application of treatments. The procedure is designed to ensure consistency and reliability in testing the effects of PPB biochar on mung bean growth. Research Set-up This procedure was adapted from Hanyabui et al. (2024) with modifications. For modification, the study will only use PPB biochar and soil mixed in varying ratios in exchange for compost and inorganic NPK fertilizer. The samples that will be used are 250 g PPB biochar for Treatment 1, 1:1 ratio of 250 g PPB biochar-soil for Treatment 2, and 250 g traditional loam soil for Treatment 3. Also, the model plant to be utilized to assess the effectiveness of PPB biochar will be Vigna radiata plants. Figure 3. Schematic Diagram of Research Set-up Sample Preparations Mung Bean (Vigna Radiata) Seeds. To verify the procured mung bean (Vigna radiata) seeds, they will first be sent to the University of the Philippines Tacloban City Campus for verification. The Vigna radiata seeds will then be selected to ensure uniform size and appearance. The seeds will then be examined to 28 remove any damaged or discolored ones to ensure consistency of the results. Once selected, the seeds will be washed thoroughly with distilled water and will be air dried on sterile paper towels for 10 minutes. Pineapple-based (PPB) waste. The acquired pineapple-based wastes will be washed first with tap water to remove any unnecessary impurities and contaminants, and will then be rinsed with distilled water. The washed waste materials will be spread out on trays and dried in a ventilated, dust-free area for about 48 hours, or until visibly dry. The dried pineapple waste will then be ground using a blender to be powdered, which will be beneficial for pyrolysis during biochar production. Then, the ground waste will be stored in a sealed container to prevent moisture absorption prior to the pyrolysis process. Loam soil. The obtained loam soil will be sent to a local geotechnical engineering firm in Tacloban City, Leyte for soil analysis. The loam soil will then be carefully sieved to remove large debris, stones, and other unwanted particles. Biochar Preparation This procedure was adapted from Hanyabui et al. (2024) with modifications. To prepare the pineapple-based (PPB) biochar, the metal canister will have holes drilled at the bottom to allow for gas to escape, while keeping oxygen flow at a minimum. The dried PPB waste will be loaded into a metal canister in two (2) batches of 2 kg and then the fire is ignited. The metal canister will gradually be heated up to approximately 500°C for 1 hr during the pyrolysis. The biochar will then be left to cool for approximately 30 minutes before being ground up and sieved to ensure uniform particle size. 29 Treatment Preparations Three treatment groups will then be prepared by mixing the biochar with soil in varying ratios. The first treatment will consist of a 2:0 ratio of PPB biochar to soil (100% PPB biochar) creating a pure 250 g biochar substrate which will be triplicated for a total of 750 g of pure PPB biochar. The second treatment will be a 1:1 ratio of PPB biochar to soil, providing an equal mixture of 125 g PPB biochar and 125 g loam soil, for a total of 250 g PPB-soil substrate which will be triplicated for a total of 750 g PPB-soil substrate. The third treatment will be a control group, consisting of only 250 g of soil (100% soil) for a total of 750 g soil substrate for three replicates. Application of Treatments The application of treatments in this study will involve filling uniform pots with the prepared biochar-soil mixtures according to the designated ratios. For Treatment 1 (2:0 ratio), the 15 cm pots will be filled with only 250 g pineapple-based (PPB) biochar. Similarly for Treatment 2 (1:1 ratio), each pot will be filled with an equal mix of PPB biochar and soil totalling 250 g (125 g biochar, 125 g soil). Finally, for Treatment 3 (0:2 ratio), the pots will be filled with only 250 g soil, serving as the control. Mung bean (Vigna radiata) seeds will be planted at a uniform depth of 4 cm of approximately 2-3 seeds per pot. After planting, the pots will be placed in a controlled environment with consistent temperature and humidity to ensure optimal growing conditions. All pots will be watered consistently to maintain equal moisture levels throughout the study, allowing for a fair comparison of the effects of the different biochar treatments on mung bean growth. Data Collection In this study, data collection will be conducted at 7-day intervals over a 30-day period, focusing on the growth performance of Vigna radiata cultivated in different biochar-to-soil ratios. The researchers will measure plant height and leaf count every 30 seven (7) days for each of the treatment groups: 2:0 (250 g PPB biochar), 1:1 (125 g PPB biochar, 125 g soil), and 0:2 (250 g soil). Root length and Vigna radiata yield will also be measured after the 30-day period for each of the treatment groups. Each treatment will have three replicate samples to ensure reliable data. These observations and measurements will be recorded at each interval, providing valuable insights into the effects of varying biochar concentrations on mung bean growth. Statistical Analysis In this study, the researchers will utilize descriptive analysis, specifically the mean ± standard deviation, to analyze and assess the results, which represent the average growth outcomes for mung beans cultivated in varying biochar-to-soil ratios of pineapple waste biochar. The results include data on the rate of change in plant height and leaf count that will be measured every seven (7) days. The results will also include root length and Vigna radiata yield for each of the triplicate samples across the different treatment groups. To further analyze the data, the researchers will employ a One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to determine if there were any statistically significant differences among the mean growth outcomes across the various biochar concentration treatments. This inferential statistical method will allow the researchers to assess the impact of different PPB biochar-to-soil ratios on Vigna radiata growth. To interpret statistical significance, the alpha level (α) will be set at 0.05, indicating the threshold for determining whether observed differences were due to chance. Following the ANOVA test, a post-hoc t-test for independent samples will be conducted to evaluate if significant differences existed specifically between the biochar-only treatment and the soil-only control group. 31 Disposal and Decontamination To dispose of any remaining PPB biochar-soil mixtures, the researchers will add it to a garden aligning with eco-friendly practices and its nature as a soil amendment material. Similarly, to dispose of any remaining organic material, the researchers will compost them unless the plant material is diseased, otherwise they will be disposed of accordingly. To dispose of any remaining PPB biochar material, the researchers will place them into clean, airtight containers for future use and will be labeled accordingly. To decontaminate the equipment used in the experiment, pots will be rinsed with water to minimize contamination in future experiments. Finally, the researchers will also decontaminate the work area to remove any residual soil, biochar, or organic material that could potentially nourish pathogens. 32 BIBLIOGRAPHY References Abhilash, P. C., Bastianoni, S., Chen, W., DeFries, R., Fraceto, L. F., Fuckar, N. S., Hashimoto, S., Hunter, D., Keesstra, S., Merah, O., O’Farrell, P., Pradhan, P., Singh, S., Smith, P., Stringer, L. C., & Turner, B. L. (2021). Introducing ‘Anthropocene Science’: a new international journal for addressing human impact on the resilience of planet Earth. Anthropocene Science, 1(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44177-021-00001-1 Agri Numerical. (2020). Major pineapple producing regions in Philippines - Production and area under cultivation. Numerical. Retrieved November 9, 2024, from https://numerical.co.in/numerons/collection/62b9112a70421d6ae0d7b252 Ali, M. M., Hashim, N., Aziz, S. A., & Lasekan, O. (2020). Pineapple (Ananas comosus): A comprehensive review of nutritional values, volatile compounds, health benefits, and potential food products. Food Research International, 137, 109675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109675 Aydinalp, C., & Cresser, M. S. (2008). The Effects of Global Climate Change on Agriculture.. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Malcolm_Cresser2/publication/238091112_T he_Effects_of_Global_Climate_Change_on_Agriculture/links/02e7e532ca03f62d 72000000.pdf Bass, A. M., Bird, M. I., Kay, G., & Muirhead, B. (2016). Soil properties, greenhouse gas emissions and crop yield under compost, biochar and co-composted biochar in two tropical agronomic systems. The Science of the Total Environment, 550, 459–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.01.143 33 Bennett, A. B., Chi-Ham, C., Barrows, G., Sexton, S., & Zilberman, D. (2013). Agricultural Biotechnology: Economics, environment, ethics, and the Future. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 38(1), 249–279. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-050912-124612 Bennett, A. J., Bending, G. D., Chandler, D., Hilton, S., & Mills, P. (2011). Meeting the demand for crop production: the challenge of yield decline in crops grown in short rotations. Biological Reviews/Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 87(1), 52–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.2011.00184.x Biederman, L. A., & Harpole, W. S. (2012). Biochar and its effects on plant productivity and nutrient cycling: a meta‐analysis. GCB Bioenergy, 5(2), 202–214. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12037 Bohari, N., Mohidin, H., Idris, J., Andou, Y., Man, S., Saidan, H., & Mahdian, S. (2020). Nutritional Characteristics of Biochar from Pineapple Leaf Residue and Sago Waste. Pertanika Journal of Science & Technology, 28(S2). https://doi.org/10.47836/pjst.28.s2.21 Castro-Montoya, J., De Campeneere, S., Van Ranst, G., & Fievez, V. (2012). Interactions between methane mitigation additives and basal substrates on in vitro methane and VFA production. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 176(1–4), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2012.07.007 Chaudhary, P., Bhattacharjee, A., Khatri, S., Dalal, R. C., Kopittke, P. M., & Sharma, S. (2024). Delineating the soil physicochemical and microbiological factors conferring disease-suppression in organic farms. Microbiological Research, 289, 127880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2024.127880 Chávez-García, E., Aguillón-Martínez, J., Sánchez-González, A., & Siebe, C. (2020). CHARACTERIZATION OF UNTREATED AND COMPOSTED BIOCHAR 34 DERIVED FROM ORANGE AND PINEAPPLE PEELS. Revista Internacional De Contaminación Ambiental, 36(2). https://doi.org/10.20937/rica.53591 Christiaensen, L., Demery, L., & Kuhl, J. (2010). The (evolving) role of agriculture in poverty reduction—An empirical perspective. Journal of Development Economics, 96(2), 239–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.10.006 Davis, A. S., Hill, J. D., Chase, C. A., Johanns, A. M., & Liebman, M. (2012). Increasing cropping system diversity balances productivity, profitability and environmental health. PLoS ONE, 7(10), e47149. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047149 Ding, Y., Liu, Y., Liu, S., Li, Z., Tan, X., Huang, X., Zeng, G., Zhou, L., & Zheng, B. (2016). Biochar to improve soil fertility. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 36(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-016-0372-z Dorosh, P., & Thurlow, J. (2016). Beyond Agriculture versus Non-Agriculture: Decomposing Sectoral Growth–Poverty Linkages in five African countries. World Development, 109, 440–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.08.014 Drinkwater, L., & Snapp, S. (2006). Nutrients in Agroecosystems: Rethinking the management paradigm. In Advances in agronomy (pp. 163–186). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2113(04)92003-2 Dubey, P. K., Singh, A., Merah, O., & Abhilash, P. (2022). Managing agroecosystems for food and nutrition security. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability, 4, 100127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2022.100127 El-Naggar, A., Lee, S. S., Rinklebe, J., Farooq, M., Song, H., Sarmah, A. K., Zimmerman, A. R., Ahmad, M., Shaheen, S. M., & Ok, Y. S. (2018). Biochar application to low fertility soils: A review of current status, and future prospects. Geoderma, 337, 536–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.09.034 Entz, M. H., Baron, V. S., Carr, P. M., Meyer, D. W., Smith, S. R., & McCaughey, W. P. (2002). Potential of forages to diversify cropping systems in the Northern Great 35 Plains. Agronomy Journal, 94(2), 240–250. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2002.2400 Farhangi-Abriz, S., Ghassemi-Golezani, K., Torabian, S., & Qin, R. (2022). A meta-analysis to estimate the potential of biochar in improving nitrogen fixation and plant biomass of legumes. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-02530-0 Foo, K., & Hameed, B. (2011). Porous structure and adsorptive properties of pineapple peel based activated carbons prepared via microwave assisted KOH and K2CO3 activation. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 148(1), 191–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2011.08.005 Franzluebbers, A. J. (2007). Integrated Crop–Livestock systems in the southeastern USA. Agronomy Journal, 99(2), 361–372. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2006.0076 Gan, R.-Y., Lui, W.-Y., Wu, K., Chan, C.-L., Dai, S.-H., Sui, Z.-Q., & Corke, H. (2017). Bioactive compounds and bioactivities of germinated edible seeds and sprouts: An updated review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, C(59), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.11.010 Ganesan, K., & Xu, B. (2018). A critical review on phytochemical profile and health promoting effects of mung bean (Vigna radiata). Food Science and Human Wellness, 7(1), 11–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2017.11.002 Geissdoerfer, M., Savaget, P., Bocken, N. M., & Hultink, E. J. (2016). The Circular Economy – A new sustainability paradigm? Journal of Cleaner Production, 143, 757–768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.048 Geisseler, D., Horwath, W. R., Joergensen, R. G., & Ludwig, B. (2010). Pathways of nitrogen utilization by soil microorganisms – A review. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 42(12), 2058–2067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.08.021 36 Handayani, A. D., Sutrisno, N., Indraswati, N., & Ismadji, S. (2007). Extraction of astaxanthin from giant tiger (Panaeus monodon) shrimp waste using palm oil: Studies of extraction kinetics and thermodynamic. Bioresource Technology, 99(10), 4414–4419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2007.08.028 Hanyabui, E., Frimpong, K. A., Annor-Frempong, F., & Atiah, K. (2024). Effect of pineapple waste biochar and compost application on the growth and yield of pineapple varieties in Ghana. Frontiers in Agronomy, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2024.1331377 Helmers, G. A., Yamoah, C. F., & Varvel, G. E. (2001). Separating the impacts of crop diversification and rotations on risk. Agronomy Journal, 93(6), 1337–1340. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2001.1337 Hou, D., Yousaf, L., Xue, Y., Hu, J., Wu, J., Hu, X., Feng, N., & Shen, Q. (2019). Mung Bean (Vigna radiata L.): Bioactive Polyphenols, Polysaccharides, Peptides, and Health Benefits. Nutrients, 11(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11061238 Jiang, Y., Li, T., Xu, X., Sun, J., Pan, G., & Cheng, K. (2024). A global assessment of the long-term effects of biochar application on crop yield. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability, 7, 100247–100247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2024.100247 Kammann, C., Ippolito, J., Hagemann, N., Borchard, N., Cayuela, M. L., Estavillo, J. M., Fuertes-Mendizabal, T., Jeffery, S., Kern, J., Novak, J., Rasse, D., Saarnio, S., Schmidt, H., Spokas, K., & Wrage-Mönnig, N. (2017). BIOCHAR AS a TOOL TO REDUCE THE AGRICULTURAL GREENHOUSE-GAS BURDEN – KNOWNS, UNKNOWNS AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 25(2), 114–139. https://doi.org/10.3846/16486897.2017.1319375 37 Kaza, S., Yao, L. C., Bhada-Tata, P., & Van Woerden, F. (2018). What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid waste Management to 2050. In Washington, DC: World Bank eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1329-0 Kirchherr, J., Reike, D., & Hekkert, M. (2017). Conceptualizing the circular economy: An analysis of 114 definitions. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 127, 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.005 Kookana, R., Sarmah, A., Van Zwieten, L., Krull, E., & Singh, B. (2011). Biochar application to soil. In Advances in agronomy (pp. 103–143). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-385538-1.00003-2 Kwapinski, W., Byrne, C. M., Kryachko, E., Wolfram, P., Adley, C. C., Leahy, J. J., Novotny, E. H., & Hayes, M. H. (2010). Biochar from Biomass and Waste. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 1(2), 177–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-010-9024-8 Lehmann, J. (2007). A handful of carbon. Nature, 447(7141), 143–144. https://doi.org/10.1038/447143a Lehmann, J., Gaunt, J., & Rondon, M. (2006). Bio-char sequestration in Terrestrial ecosystems – a review. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 11(2), 403–427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-005-9006-5 Li, S., & Tasnady, D. (2023). Biochar for soil carbon sequestration: Current knowledge, mechanisms, and future perspectives. C – Journal of Carbon Research, 9(3), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/c9030067 Lim, T. K. (2011). Vigna radiata. In Springer eBooks (pp. 951–959). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1764-0_100 Ma, J., Frear, C., Wang, Z., Yu, L., Zhao, Q., Li, X., & Chen, S. (2013). A simple methodology for rate-limiting step determination for anaerobic digestion of 38 complex substrates and effect of microbial community ratio. Bioresource Technology, 134, 391–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.02.014 Maia, C. M. B. F., Madari, B. E., & Novotny, E. H. (2011). Advances in biochar research in Brazil. Dynamic Soil, Dynamic Plant, 5, 53–58. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/216714731_Advances_in_Biochar_Res earch_in_Brazil Martens, J. T., & Entz, M. (2011). Integrating green manure and grazing systems: A review. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 91(5), 811–824. https://doi.org/10.4141/cjps10177 Martir-Torres, M. C., & Bruns, M. A. (2012). Comparative diversity and abundance of ammonia monooxygenase genes in mulched and vegetated soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 57, 758–768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2012.10.016 Mathlouthi, F., Ruggeri, R., & Rossini, F. (2022). Alternative Solution to Synthetic Fertilizers for the Starter Fertilization of Bread Wheat under Mediterranean Climatic Conditions. Agronomy, 12(2), 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020511 McCance, K. R., Suarez, A., McAlexander, S. L., Davis, G., Blanchard, M. R., & Venditti, R. A. (2021). Modeling a biorefinery: converting pineapple waste to bioproducts and biofuel. Journal of Chemical Education, 98(6), 2047–2054. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00020 McDaniel, M. D., Tiemann, L. K., & Grandy, A. S. (2013). Does agricultural crop diversity enhance soil microbial biomass and organic matter dynamics? A meta‐analysis. Ecological Applications, 24(3), 560–570. https://doi.org/10.1890/13-0616.1 McLelland, J. (2010, December 6). The growth stages of mung beans. Hunker. https://www.hunker.com/13426693/the-growth-stages-of-mung-beans/ 39 Mehraj, M., Das, S., Feroz, F., Wani, A. W., Dar, S., Kumar, S., Wani, A. K., & Farid, A. (2024). Nutritional composition and therapeutic potential of pineapple peel – A Comprehensive review. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 21(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.202400315 Mendelsohn, R. (2009). The impact of climate change on agriculture in developing countries. Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research, 1(1), 5–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/19390450802495882 Murray, A., Skene, K., & Haynes, K. (2015). The Circular Economy: an interdisciplinary exploration of the concept and application in a global context. Journal of Business Ethics, 140(3), 369–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2693-2 Obi, F., Ugwuishiwu, B., & Nwakaire, J. (2016). AGRICULTURAL WASTE CONCEPT, GENERATION, UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 35(4), 957. https://doi.org/10.4314/njt.v35i4.34 Pratap, A., Gupta, S., Rathore, M., Basavaraja, T., Singh, C. M., Prajapati, U., Singh, P., Singh, Y., & Kumari, G. (2021, January 1). Chapter 1 - Mungbean (A. Pratap & S. Gupta, Eds.). ScienceDirect; Woodhead Publishing. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128214503000093 Prakash, G., Varma, A., Prabhune, A., Shouche, Y., & Rao, M. (2010). Microbial production of xylitol from d-xylose and sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose using newly isolated thermotolerant yeast Debaryomyces hansenii. Bioresource Technology, 102(3), 3304–3308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.10.074 Rab, A., Khan, M. R., Haq, S. U., Zahid, S., Azim, M., Afridi, M. Z., Arif, M., & Munsif, F. (2016). Impact of biochar on mungbean yield and yield components. Pure and Applied Biology, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2016.50082 40 Rosales, C., Rivera, F., Hautea, R., & Rosario, E. (n.d.). FIELD EVALUATION OF N 2 FIXATION BY MUNG BEAN IN THE PHILIPPINES, AND RESIDUAL EFFECTS ON MAIZE. Razzaghi, F., Obour, P. B., & Arthur, E. (2019). Does biochar improve soil water retention? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Geoderma, 361, 114055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114055 Sanderson, M. A., Archer, D., Hendrickson, J., Kronberg, S., Liebig, M., Nichols, K., Schmer, M., Tanaka, D., & Aguilar, J. (2013). Diversification and ecosystem services for conservation agriculture: Outcomes from pastures and integrated crop–livestock systems. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 28(2), 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1742170512000312 Saxena, J., Rawat, J., & Kumar, R. (2017). Conversion of Biomass Waste into Biochar and the Effect on Mung Bean Crop Production. CLEAN - Soil, Air, Water, 45(7), 1501020. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.201501020 Shu, Q., Nawaz, Z., Gao, J., Liao, Y., Zhang, Q., Wang, D., & Wang, J. (2010). Synthesis of biodiesel from a model waste oil feedstock using a carbon-based solid acid catalyst: Reaction and separation. Bioresource Technology, 101(14), 5374–5384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.02.050 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024, November 8). Fabaceae | Legumes, pulses, peas. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/plant/Fabaceae Tilman, D., Cassman, K. G., Matson, P. A., Naylor, R., & Polasky, S. (2002). Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature, 418(6898), 671–677. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01014 Van Den Hende, S., Carré, E., Cocaud, E., Beelen, V., Boon, N., & Vervaeren, H. (2014). Treatment of industrial wastewaters by microalgal bacterial flocs in sequencing 41 batch reactors. Bioresource Technology, 161, 245–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.03.057 Wood, M., & Litterick, A. M. (2017). Soil health – What should the doctor order? Soil Use and Management, 33(2), 339–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12344 Woolf, D., Amonette, J. E., Street-Perrott, F. A., Lehmann, J., & Joseph, S. (2010). Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change. Nature Communications, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1053 Wu, L., Wood, Y., Jiang, P., Li, L., Pan, G., Lu, J., Chang, A. C., & Enloe, H. A. (2008). Carbon sequestration and dynamics of two irrigated agricultural soils in California. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 72(3), 808–814. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2007.0074 Xu, Z., Zhao, M., Miao, H., Huang, Z., Gao, S., & Ruan, W. (2014). In situ volatile fatty acids influence biogas generation from kitchen wastes by anaerobic digestion. Bioresource Technology, 163, 186–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.04.037 Yin, Z., Guo, W., Xiao, H., Liang, J., Hao, X., Dong, N., Leng, T., Wang, Y., Wang, Q., & Yin, F. (2018). Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilization to achieve expected yield and improve yield components of mung bean. PLOS ONE, 13(10), e0206285. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206285 Yu, Z., Du, G., Zhou, J., & Chen, J. (2012). Enhanced α-ketoglutaric acid production in Yarrowia lipolytica WSH-Z06 by an improved integrated fed-batch strategy. Bioresource Technology, 114, 597–602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.021

Optimizing Pineapple Waste Biochar for Mung Bean Growth PDF

Document Details

Tags

Related

Summary

Full Transcript

Upgrade to continue