Biology End-of-Course Review PDF

Biology End of Course Review The Powerhouse of the Cell Mitochondria Function Cellular Respiration Mitochondria are known as the Mitochondria are involved in "powerhouse" of the cell. They cellular respiration, converting produce ATP (adenosine nutr...

Biology End of Course Review The Powerhouse of the Cell Mitochondria Function Cellular Respiration Mitochondria are known as the Mitochondria are involved in "powerhouse" of the cell. They cellular respiration, converting produce ATP (adenosine nutrients into energy. This triphosphate), which is the main process is essential for all energy currency of the cell. cellular activities. Structure These organelles have a unique double membrane structure. The inner membrane is folded to increase surface area for energy production. The Plasma Membrane Structure The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Function The plasma membrane controls the passage of materials into and out of a cell, acting as a selective barrier. Importance This regulation is crucial for maintaining cellular homeostasis and proper functioning of the cell. The Solar Panels of Plants Chloroplasts Structure Importance Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant These organelles contain chlorophyll, the Photosynthesis is crucial for life on Earth, cells. They are responsible for green pigment that captures light energy. producing oxygen and forming the base photosynthesis, converting light energy They have a complex internal structure of of most food chains. into chemical energy. thylakoids. The Protein Factories Function 1 Ribosomes synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA (mRNA) sequences into polypeptide chains. Location 2 They can be found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Structure 3 Ribosomes consist of two subunits that come together during protein synthesis. Importance 4 Protein synthesis is essential for all cellular functions and structure. The Lipid Factory Main Function Structure 1 2 The smooth endoplasmic Unlike rough ER, smooth ER reticulum (ER) is involved in lacks ribosomes on its lipid synthesis and surface. metabolism of carbohydrates. Additional Roles 3 It also plays a role in detoxification processes in liver cells. Cellular Energy Production Mitochondria, often called the "powerhouses" of the cell, are responsible for producing ATP, the primary energy currency used by cells. The mitochondria is generated through the process of cellular respiration. Involves a series of four stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, the electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. During these stages, nutrients are converted into energy, carbon dioxide, and water, providing the fuel needed for essential cellular processes. The Basic Unit of Life Definition Discovery Complexity The cell is the basic unit of life, capable Cells were first observed by Robert Hooke Cells range from simple prokaryotes to of performing all life processes. in 1665 using a primitive microscope. complex eukaryotes with numerous organelles. The Cell's Command Center Function Structure The nucleus is responsible for It's enclosed by a double genetic information storage and membrane called the nuclear control of cellular activities. envelope, with pores for molecular transport. Contents The nucleus contains chromosomes made of DNA and proteins, as well as nucleoli for ribosome production. The Plants Cell Wall Structure Function Importance The cell wall is a rigid outer layer mainly Cell wall provides support and protection The cell wall allows plants to grow tall composed of cellulose fibers. to plant cells, maintaining their shape and and resist environmental pressures. structure. Cellular Transport Mechanisms Passive Transport Molecules move down their concentration gradient without energy input. Active Transport Active transport requires energy input from the cell, usually in the form of ATP. Importance These mechanisms maintain proper cellular concentrations of substances essential for life. The Cell's Recycling Center Primary Function Structure 1 2 Lysosomes are responsible They are membrane-bound for breaking down cellular organelles containing various waste and foreign digestive enzymes. substances. Importance 3 Lysosomes play a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and defending against pathogens. The Blueprint of Life Structure 1 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) carries genetic information in a double helix structure. Components 2 It consists of nucleotides containing deoxyribose sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases. Function 3 DNA stores and transmits hereditary information for the development and functioning of organisms. The Messenger Molecule Molecule Sugar Bases Structure DNA Deoxyribose A, T, G, C Double-strand ed RNA Ribose A, U, G, C Single-strande d Note: Thymine is not found in RNA. It is replaced by uracil. The Genetic Code Definition Structure A gene is a segment of DNA Genes consist of coding regions that codes for a protein or (exons) and non-coding regions functional RNA molecule. (introns). Function Genes determine an organism's traits and are the basic units of heredity. The Bonds of DNA Base Pairing Bond Type Importance Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine Hydrogen bonds hold together the These bonds allow for DNA replication pairs with cytosine in DNA. nitrogenous bases in DNA's double helix and transcription while maintaining structure. stability. Gamete Production Process 1 Meiosis produces gametes in sexually reproducing organisms. Stages 2 It involves two cell divisions, resulting in four haploid daughter cells. Importance 3 Meiosis ensures genetic diversity through crossing over and random assortment of chromosomes. Cellular Replication Process Outcome Purpose Mitosis Two identical Growth and repair daughter cells Meiosis Four haploid Sexual reproduction gametes The Genetic Blueprint Genotype Phenotype Relationship The genotype is an organism's genetic The phenotype is the observable Genotype influences phenotype, but makeup, the set of genes it carries. characteristics resulting from the environmental factors also play a role. genotype and environment. Genetic Inheritance Patterns Heterozygous Cross Punnett Square In a cross between two This tool helps visualize heterozygous parents (Aa x Aa), possible genotype the probability of a combinations in genetic heterozygous offspring is 50%. crosses. Mendelian Genetics These principles form the foundation of our understanding of genetic inheritance. Genetic Variations Definition Types 1 2 A mutation is a change in the Mutations can be point nucleotide sequence of DNA. mutations, insertions, deletions, or chromosomal alterations. Effects 3 Mutations can be harmful, beneficial, or neutral, contributing to genetic diversity and evolution. Predicting Genetic Outcomes Purpose A Punnett square is used to predict the outcome of genetic crosses. Method It visually represents all possible combinations of alleles from parents. Application This tool is valuable in genetics research, agriculture, and understanding inheritance patterns. Symbiotic Relationships Mutualism Commensalism Parasitism Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship One organism benefits while the other is One organism benefits at the expense of where both organisms benefit. Example: unaffected. Example: remora fish the other. Example: tapeworms in human bees pollinating flowers. attached to sharks. intestines. Dietary Classifications Herbivores Herbivores only eat plants. They have flat molars for grinding plant material. Carnivores Carnivores primarily eat meat. They have sharp canines for tearing flesh. Omnivores Omnivores eat both plants and animals. They have a variety of tooth types. The Body's Transport System Main Function Components 1 2 It consists of the heart, blood The circulatory system vessels, and blood. transports nutrients and oxygen throughout the body. Importance 3 This system is crucial for maintaining homeostasis and supporting all body functions. The Brain's Balance Center Location Function The cerebellum is located at the The cerebellum controls back of the brain, below the balance and coordination of cerebral cortex. voluntary movements. Structure The cerebellum has a highly folded surface, increasing its surface area for more neurons. The Body's Framework Support 1 The skeletal system provides structural support for the body. Protection 2 It protects vital organs like the brain and heart. Mineral Storage 3 Function of the skeletal system is that bones store minerals like calcium and phosphorus. Blood Cell Production 4 Red bone marrow produces blood cells. The Body's Highways Arteries Veins Capillaries Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Veins return blood to the heart. They have These tiny vessels allow exchange of They have thick, elastic walls to thinner walls and valves to prevent nutrients and gases between blood and withstand high pressure. backflow. tissues. The Heart's Unique Muscle Type Structure Cardiac muscle is found in the It has intercalated discs, heart. It is involuntary and allowing coordinated striated. contraction of heart cells. Function Cardiac muscle pumps blood throughout the body continuously throughout life. The Body's Invisible Workers Location Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs, such as blood vessels and intestines. Structure It lacks striations and is controlled involuntarily by the autonomic nervous system. Function Smooth muscle regulates internal organ functions like digestion and blood flow. Kidney The kidney is responsible for filtering waste from the blood to form urine. This vital organ maintains fluid balance and removes toxins from our bodies. Filtration Reabsorption Removes waste and excess Retains essential nutrients and substances from blood water Secretion Eliminates additional wastes into urine Red Blood Cells The main function of red blood cells is to carry oxygen. These specialized cells contain hemoglobin, which binds oxygen in the lungs and releases it to tissues throughout the body. Microscopic View Hemoglobin Structure Red blood cells have a distinctive biconcave shape, maximizing Hemoglobin is a complex protein that can bind up to four oxygen surface area for oxygen transport. molecules. Liver The liver produces bile, which aids in the digestion and absorption of fats in the small intestine. This organ plays a crucial role in metabolism and detoxification. Bile Production 1 Liver cells synthesize bile from cholesterol and other components. Storage 2 Bile is stored and concentrated in the gallbladder. Release 3 Bile is released into the small intestine to emulsify fats. Central Nervous System The spinal cord is part of the central nervous system. It processes information and coordinates responses throughout the body, working in tandem with the brain. Structure Function Protection Long, cylindrical bundle of nervous tissue Transmits signals between the brain and Encased in vertebrae and surrounded by extending from the brain. the rest of the body. cerebrospinal fluid. Respiratory System The primary function of the respiratory system is to provide oxygen to the body. It facilitates gas exchange, bringing in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. Inhalation Air enters the lungs, rich in oxygen Alveolar Exchange Oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream Exhalation Carbon dioxide is expelled from the body Cell Membranes Lipids are the main component of cell membranes. They form a bilayer that acts as a semi-permeable barrier, controlling what enters and exits the cell. Lipid Bilayer Membrane Proteins Phospholipids arrange with hydrophilic heads facing outward and Proteins within the membrane facilitate transport and hydrophobic tails inward. communication. Protein Building Blocks Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins. These molecules link together to form polypeptide chains that fold into functional proteins. There are 20 different amino acids commonly found in proteins, each with a unique side chain that contributes to the overall shape and function of the protein. The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is determined by the genetic code and is crucial for the protein's structure and function. Cellular Energy ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary source of energy for cellular processes. It powers various biological functions, from muscle contraction to biochemical reactions. Energy Currency Synthesis 1 2 ATP stores and releases Produced mainly through energy through phosphate cellular respiration and bond hydrolysis. photosynthesis. Versatility 3 Used in numerous cellular processes, including active transport and biosynthesis. Polysaccharides Starch is a polysaccharide composed of glucose units. Plants use it for energy storage, and it's a significant component of the human diet. Type Structure Function Amylose Unbranched Long-term storage Amylopectin Branched Quick energy release Anabolism Anabolism refers to biosynthetic reactions where smaller molecules are assembled into larger, complex molecules. These processes often require energy input. Activation Growth Energy input activates small molecules. Larger molecules form, contributing to cellular structures or storage. 1 2 3 Assembly Enzymes facilitate the joining of smaller units. Carbohydrates-Dietary Energy Source Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in the human diet. They are easily broken down into glucose, fueling cellular respiration. Simple Carbs Complex Carbs Fiber Quick energy source (e.g., fruits, sugar) Sustained energy release (e.g., whole Indigestible carbs for gut health grains, vegetables) Enzymes Enzymes act as catalysts in biological systems. They speed up chemical reactions without being consumed or permanently altered in the process. Substrate Binding Enzyme's active site attaches to specific molecules Reaction Facilitation Enzyme lowers activation energy for the reaction Product Release Enzyme releases altered molecules and is ready for reuse Organic Molecules Carbon is present in all organic molecules. It forms the backbone of macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration breaks down glucose to produce ATP in the presence of oxygen. This process is crucial for energy production in cells. Glycolysis 1 Glucose is split into pyruvate in the cytoplasm. Citric Acid Cycle 2 Pyruvate is oxidized in mitochondria, producing NADH and FADH2. Electron Transport Chain 3 NADH and FADH2 drive ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation. Nucleic Acids The main function of nucleic acids in the cell is to store genetic information. DNA and RNA are responsible for transmitting genetic data for protein synthesis and cellular function. DNA Structure RNA Structure Double-stranded helix stores long-term genetic information. Single-stranded molecule involved in gene expression and protein synthesis. Ecosystems An ecosystem encompasses living and nonliving components of an environment (biotic factors) and their physical environment (abiotic factors) interacting as a system. Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert sunlight into chemical energy. It uses carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen. Light Absorption Chlorophyll captures light energy Water Splitting H2O is split into H+ and O2 Carbon Fixation CO2 is converted into glucose Ecosystem Factors Water is an abiotic factor in an ecosystem. Abiotic factors are non-living components that influence living organisms within the ecosystem. Sunlight Water Energy source for photosynthesis Essential for life processes Soil Temperature Provides nutrients and support for Affects metabolic rates and plants distributions Rainforest Biome The rainforest biome is characterized by high temperatures and large amounts of rainfall. This environment leads to rich biodiversity and dense vegetation. Temperature Rainfall Consistently warm, typically between 20-30°C (68-86°F) Annual precipitation often exceeds 2000mm (80 inches) Biodiversity Canopy Layers Home to millions of plant and animal species Distinct layers from forest floor to emergent trees Trophic Level A group of organisms sharing the same energy source. Trophic levels depict where organisms stand in a food chain or web, based on their energy source, spanning from producers to various consumer levels. Greenhouse The greenhouse effect occurs when the trapping of heat by gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor, absorb and trap heat from the sun. This trapped heat then warms the Earth's surface, contributing to the overall rise in global temperatures. This phenomenon is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature at a habitable level.