Bio Exam 3 Review PDF

2 plant hormones to know: 1. Gibberellins (GA’s) a. Stimulate shoot elongation, seed germination, and fruit + flower maturation 2. Auxins a. Main hormones responsible for cell elongation in phototropism and gravitropism b. Control meriste...

2 plant hormones to know: 1. Gibberellins (GA’s) a. Stimulate shoot elongation, seed germination, and fruit + flower maturation 2. Auxins a. Main hormones responsible for cell elongation in phototropism and gravitropism b. Control meristem differentiation Mycorrhizae: Symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots ○ Fungi integrated into root physical structure Plant gains essential elements from soil Fungus obtains nutrients from plant Epiphyte: Plant growing on other plant ○ Not dependent on plant for nutrition 2 root types ○ Clinging aerial roots Absorb nutrients from humus that accumulates in tree crevices ○ Aerial roots Absorb moisture from atmosphere Saprophytes: No chlorophyll Obtain food from dead matter ○ Enzymes convert organic food materials into simpler forms Most parasitize fungi ○ That digest dead matter or are mycorrhizal Choanoflagellates: Sessile protists, some colonial Sponges: Multicellular, sessile animals Major animal characteristics: Multicellular Heterotrophs Move self propelled ○ At some point in life  No cell walls Muscle tissue: Nervous tissue No alternation of generations Adult diploid, only gametes haploid 4 features define animal body plan 1. Number of embryonic tissue layers a. All animals have tissues (except porifera) i. Epithelium: layer of tightly joined cells covering body surface ii. Diploblasts: animals with embryo with 2 tissue types (ectoderm + endoderm) 2. Nervous system, body symmetry + degree of cephalization (formation of head region) 3. presence/ absence of fluid filled cavity (coelom) 4. Earliest events of embryonic development Triploblasts: animals with embryo with 3 tissue types Ectoderm ○ Covering of animal and nervous system Mesoderm ○ Circulatory system, muscle, bone + most organs Endoderm ○ Lining of digestive tract + associated organs Body plans: Asymmetry ○ Sponges: asymmetrical ○ Body plan only found in parazoa Radial symmetry ○ Body parts around central axis ○ Allows sedentary/ slow moving creatures to experience environment equally in all directions ○ At least 2 planes of symmetry ○ With nerve net ○ Cnidarians (jellyfish) Bilateral symmetry ○ Single plane of symmetry ○ Face environment in one direction Body cavity- coelom Enclosed, fluid filled body cavity ○ In some animals ○ Diploblasts lack ○ Like bryophytes because they can’t hold moisture Blastula: divide rapidly with fewer cells until the transition period wherein the gastrula is formed and becomes more specialized. Gastrula: gastrula is developed from blastula and comprises more cells than in blastula, generates the three primary germ layers ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm Hydrostatic skeletons allow limbless animals to move Coordinated muscle contractions result in locomotion Tube-within-a-tube body plan Bilaterally symmetric Triploblastic Protostomes or deuterostomes Outer tube forms body wall and inner tube forms digestive tract Digestive system= formed by endoderm Body wall= formed from ectoderm Muscles + organs= formed by mesoderm Protostomes Mouth develops 1st Develops at/near blastopore + anus at opposite end Deuterostomes Mouth develops 2nd Anus develops at/near blastopore + mouth at opposite end 5 major mass extinctions documented: ordovician, devonian, permian, triassic, and cretaceous Choanoflagellates: animalia origins, protist Epithelial tissues: Squamous ○ flat/overlapping ○ Cheek cells ○ Skin, mouth, vagina Columnar ○ long/wide ○ nose/trachea ○ Intestines, respiratory tract Transitional ○ Elongated, compacted ○ Protecting gut from being polluted with urine ○ Urinary bladder Matrix of living cells & non-living substance called ground substance: ground substance content: organic substance & inorganic substance gives tissue its density ‒ Fibroblast cell (with collagen) principal skin connective tissues cell Bone: calcium matrix Cells: osteogenic cell, osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast *be able to recognize not know Blood cells: liquid matrix Red blood cells: no nucleus (gets rid of nucleus) Muscle cells Specialized with inner microtubules that contract + expand Attached to: endoskeleton (vertebrate muscles) and exoskeleton (hard shelled insects or mollusks) Nervous tissue: highly specialized Cell body of neuron- large structure with central nucleus Projections: extensions of plasma membrane of 1 cell Dendrites: receive signal Axon: transmit signal Animal phylogeny: Specialized tissues Symmetry Coelom Proto vs deuterostome Shedding exoskeleton Animal development: gastrulation in coelomates - Zygote (fertilized egg) develops in blastopore (hollow) - Germ layers form during gastrulation - Programmed to develop into: tissue types, organs, organ system during organogenesis Mouth development: 2 eucoelomate groups 1. Protostomes a. Mesoderm separates to form coelom in process called schizocoely 2. Deuterostomes a. Mesoderm pinches off to form coelom in process called enterocoely Protostomes: molt or not? Animals that molt their exoskeletons: clade Ecdysozoa Ecdysis: molting most animals don’t molt Porifera: sponges Benthic- lives on bottom of water (fresh or salt) Body architecture: tubes + pores create channels for h2o currents Specialized cell types and epithelial tissue Most: suspension feeders Sponge cells are totipotent- isolated cell can develop into complete adult No true tissues except epithelial Asymmetric Descendant of protists Sponge body: mass of cells in gelatinous matrix (collagen) made rigid by skeleton of spicules ( ground structure in sponges) Sponge body types ○ Ascon - simple walls ○ Sycon- folded walls ○ Leucon- folds upon folds folded walls Folded walls have more surface area Surface area big to small: leucon, sycon, ascon Reproduction + movement: “Smoking” sponge ejaculates, other sponges have egg Tether hoping to collect sperm → free swimming zygote Cnidaria: jellyfish, hydra, anemones, corals, sea pens Primarily marine Radial symmetry Diploblasts Most with life cycle including both polyp + medusa forms Found in all cnidarians- nematocysts (stinging cells) 2 membrane layers with jelly like mesoglea between Polymorphic cnidarians: Gastrozooid ○ Adapted for capturing prey + feeding Gonozooid ○ Adapted for asexual budding + production of sexual medusae Coenosarc ○ Common digestive cavity Class anthozoa ○ Anemones: look like flowers, contain clusters of brightly colored tentacles around the mouth ○ Corals: provide foundations (reefs) for spp globally Class scyphozoa ○ True jellyfish  ○ Life cycle: egg + sperm → zygote → larva → polyp → budding polyp → ephyra → medusa Class cubozoa ○ Box jellyfish Class hydrozoa ○ Marine predators, very small, some solitary, some colonial ○ Obelia: have both polyp + medusa life stages ○ craspedacusta/freshwater “jellyfish” Lophotrochozoa: non-molting protostomes Bilateral symmetry Coelom, some have pseudocoelom Prostomia Non-molting Flatworms, annelids, mollusks Platyhelminthes Flatworms 3 major subgroups ○ Turbellarians (free-living) flatworms ○ Cestodes (endoparasitic) tapeworms ○ Trematodes (endoparasitic) flukes Broad, flattened body shape ○ Large SA for gas exchange Planaria: body cavity, not true coelom, holds nerve + digestive system, when divided pieces regrow, separate mouth + anus Tapeworms- gut parasite, heterotrophic, inside body wall contains nervous system and reproductive organs All domesticated animals have tapeworms Phylum annelida Marine worms, earthworms, leeches True segments Coelom sub divided into segments Vascular system Digestive organs Reproductive organs With clitellum- for transfer of sperm Chaetae- bristle like extensions repeated at each segment Polychaeta- marine worms with leg like bristles at each segment Oligochaete- earthworm, segmented, has coelom, exchange sperm, clitellum for egg storage Lophotrochozoa: phylum mollusca Complex digestive system Produces slimy secretions True coelom-vascular tissue Digestive organs Reproductive organs Some mollusks with shells Primarily marine Body plan: foot (large muscle), visceral mass (region containing most of internal organs and external gill), shell (tissue layer covering visceral mass) Synapomorphy: mantle Bivalves- 2 separate shells Mollusca: gastropoda Snails, slugs + nudibranchs Marine, terrestrial, fresh water Large muscular foot; many lack shells “Torsion” rotates visceral mass Radula- scapes away food Gliding movement- waves of contractions down length of foot Reproduction is mostly sexual Single shell or lack shell (can be venomous) Cone shells: predators, “harpoon”, toxin- analgesic Cowries are shiny because mantle wraps around shell to suture line Mollusca: Polyplacophora (Chitons) **Chitons: 7 or 8 CaCO3 plates along dorsal side form protective shell **Radula – scrapes algae off rocks Marine Move by gliding on broad, muscular foot Reproduction sexual & external Mollusca: cephalopoda Nautilus, cuttlefish, squid, & octopuses Well-developed head Foot: modified to form long, muscular arms & tentacles Nautilus: only cephalopods with external shell Large brains & eyes with sophisticated lenses – highly intelligent predators ○ hunt by sight ○ use tentacles to capture prey Radula & beak Reproduction sexual & internal – via spermatophore packet sentient= conscious thought + free will Ecdysozoa Grow by molting -shedding of soft cuticle or hard exoskeleton Ecdysis- to slip out or escape Cuticle (soft) + exoskeleton (hard) = protection from predators Nematoda (roundworms) In every habitat, abundant Unsegmented with coelom Tube-within-a-tube body plan No appendages Longitudinal muscles- bend body upon contracting or relaxing Most are free living some parasites most= dioecious (2 sexes) ARTHROPODS: ECDYSOZOA & JOINTED LEGS Bilateral symmetric Coelom Prostomia Molting ‒ Ecdysozoa Chitin exoskeleton Jointed legs Head, body, & abdomen Insects, Crustaceans, Spiders Life as ecdysian: egg- all, larvae, pupae + metamorphosis- some, adult Adult and larvae forms may differ Segmented bodies, metamorphosis, jointed limbs, exoskeleton, body cavity= hemocoel (space for internal organs + circulation of fluids), head + thorax + abdomen = tagmata Myriapods: have legs on each segment of body SUBPHYLUM CHELICERATA Body: 2 parts ○ Prosoma ○ Opisthosoma 1st pair of appendages: chelicerae ○ specialized, claw-like, or fang-like mouthparts Spiders ‒ Scorpions, Horseshoe crabs, Sea spiders Insecta: Terrestrial environments Important in freshwater not marine Head + thorax + abdomen ○ 3 pairs of walking legs on ventral side of thorax Most spp: 2 pairs of wings on dorsal side of thorax Arthropoda: Crustaceans Shrimp, Lobster, Crabs, etc Primarily marine & freshH2O environments Segmented body divided into cephalothorax ○ combines head & thorax & abdomen mouthparts called mandibles Use all feeding strategies 2 pair of antennae Compound eyes Phylum echinodermata Coelom Deuterostomia Radially & bilaterally symmetric ○ derived trait not Cnidarians related Organs Tube feet ○ soft, not jointed Hardened endoskeleton ○ internal structural support Spiny skins Synapomorphies: ○ Water vascular system ○ endoskeleton - hard supportive structure inside body 4 traits distinguish chordata: 1. Pharyngeal gill slits - fish gills, human tonsils a. Openings in pharynx, allows exit of water in mouth from feeding 2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord - spinal cord 3. Notochord - rod like support 4. Muscular, post-anal tail - rearranged organ systems in some Some traits only present in embryo Non-vertebrate chordates: lancelets, tunicates, lamprey’s Vertebrate fish: chondrichthyes Cartilaginous fish ○ Skeleton of cartilage, not bone ○ Sharks, rays, skates, jawed fish with paired fins Sensory organs include lateral line Internal fertilization Eggs Shark reproduction: Reproduce sexually ○ Eggs fertilized internally Ovoviviparous ○ Fertilized eggs retained in mother’s oviduct ○ Embryo nourished by egg yolk ○ Eggs hatched in uterus ○ Young born alive + fully functional Oviparous ○ Lay eggs that hatch outside of mother ○ Embryos protected by shark egg case Vertebrate fish: bony fish Osteichthyes ○ Bony skeleton Breathe using gills Swim bladder in most ○ Gas filled organ to control buoyancy Lateral line system that detects vibrations Often covered in scales Covering over gills Eels, trout, tuna, clownfish, goldfish SUBPHYLUM VERTEBRATA Gnathostomes ○ “jawed mouth” ○ animals with jaws ○ e.g., fishes & tetrapods: amphibians, reptiles, birds, & mammals 2 Tetrapod groups ○ Amphibians ○ Amniotes animals with eggs adapted for terrestrial life i.e., mammals, reptiles, & birds amniotic embryos provided with H2O-retaining environment & protected by amniotic membranes Lobe finned fishes, coelacanths + lungfishes Vertebrate lineages: amphibians Tetrapoda- 4 limbed vertebrates Traits: ○ Lay eggs in water (larvae develop in water) ○ Some adults live outside water ○ Cutaneous respiration- exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with environment often through moist, permeable skin Frogs ○ Eggs fertilized externally (laid in moist environment) ○ Tadpole: filter feeding herbivore ○ During metamorphosis: gills, tail, and lateral line disappear, 4 limbs develop, jaws enlarge, digestive system transforms into typical short gut of predator ○ Most respiration done through skin, have tiny lungs for vocalization for mating ○ Anuran (frog or toad) metamorphosis: Eggs laid in water (larvae aquatic) Embryonic development outside parent body Larvae adapted with horny ridges for teeth whiskers *** Salamanders: 4 legs move by bending body from side to side Lungless respiration through skin/external gills ○ Some: primitive lungs or both gills and lungs Internal fertilization Hatchling resembles tiny adults - no metamorphosis Herpetology: Study of amphibians + reptiles ○ Amphibians - some metamorphosis ○ Eggs require water **** Amniota: Terrestrially adapted egg ○ Protected by amniotic membranes ○ Egg layers facilitate oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange Allantois ○ Stores nitrogenous wastes produced by embryo ○ Facilitate respiration Mammals ○ Membranes present in placenta ○ Homologous to extra embryonic membranes in eggs Additional adult derived characteristics ○ Waterproof skin ○ (Postal crib ) ventilation of lungs Reptile traits: Lay eggs enclosed in shells on land Internal fertilization - some ovoviviparous/oviparous Scaly skin ○ Contains keratin + waxy lipids Lungs Ectothermic ○ Require less calories but can’t maintain constant body temperature ○ Behavioral adaptations regulate heat Crocodalia: Live throughout tropics + subtropics in fresh and salt water Spend most of their time in water Some species move on land Lizards + snakes: Snakes lack eyelids + external ears Most carnivorous - some venomous Common in tropical forests Most have flexible skull - jaws unhinge to swallow large prey Testudines (turtles): Bony or cartilaginous shell Plastron ○ Ventral shell surface ○ Extends from vertebral column Carapace ○ Dorsal shell surface ○ Develops from ribs Found in deserts, marine + fresh water Sea turtles lay eggs on land- live aquatically as adults