Bio 102 Notes exam 2.pdf

September 17, 2024 Fungi: A world of decomposers Scary Mushrooms - Autumn Skullcap Good fungi - Mycoworks - Looks similar to leather bags Four groups of fungi - Chytrids - Bread molds - Club fungi (mushrooms) - Sac fungi (yeast) What makes one a fungus? -...

September 17, 2024 Fungi: A world of decomposers Scary Mushrooms - Autumn Skullcap Good fungi - Mycoworks - Looks similar to leather bags Four groups of fungi - Chytrids - Bread molds - Club fungi (mushrooms) - Sac fungi (yeast) What makes one a fungus? - It is an eukaryote - Most fungi are multicellular - Yeast= single celled (unicellular) - Sessile- stationary - Heterotrophic- don't make their own food - Decomposers - Cell wall made up of chitin - Extracellular digestion- means outside the cell Fungi are everywhere - Examples: - Fruit rot - Soil sample - Arthrobotrys- nematode strangler (tiny worms) They actually strangle the worm - Truffles - Black bread mold - Fungi as a predator Lichens - Lichens are organisms formed by close relationship between fungus and single-celled photosynthetic organisms - Lichens=fungi green algae or cyanobacteria - Lichens on a rock, lichens on a tree - Algae cell (or cyanobacteria) - Hyphae of fungus Beneficial fungi 1. Environmental use decomposers and bioremediation - Oil being absorbed by mushroom mycelium breaking down plastics, petrochemicals and toxic waste 2. Food industry: useful fungi (yeast) - Blue cheeses are aged with the help of a specific fungus 3. Medically useful fungi: provides antibiotics - Penicillin from penicillium fungi - Ergotamine from ergot- helps treat migraines - Ergonovine from ergot: prevents postpartum hemorrhaging 4. Use in horticulture industry Mycorrhizae=fungi + plant roots 5. Mycotex: textiles made from mushroom mycelium 6. Genetically modified fungi: biopesticide - GM fungi that blocks the malaria parasite development inside the mosquito - GM fungi infects stink bugs Oregon honey fungus - Honey mushroom - Largest single living organism on earth - Covers more than 3.4 square miles in oregon's national forest and is more than 2400 years old Fungal reproduction - All about making spores Reproduction forms - DIPLOID= 2 sets of chromosomes, 2n (diploid) - 23 chromosomes from mom and dad - HAPLOID= 1 set of chromosome, n (haploid) Examples: eggs and sperm, or spores - MITOSIS: cell division in which the chromosome number is same - MEIOSIS: cell division in which the chromosome number is half Human life cycle Fungus life cycle Most fungi can reproduce sexually and asexually - Both involve production of spores - Spores grow directly into fungi The downside of fungi - Chytrid fungus causes infectious disease in frogs - White nose syndrome in bats Some fungi are parasites - Fungi cause the majority of plant diseases Plant rusts and smut - Fungus leaf gall - Corn smut Wheat rust - A severe plant disease - Deadly new disease threatens europe's crops - Coffee rust - Started in africa Some fungi are human pathogens - Mycosis: general term for fungal disease - Ringworm, vaginal yeast infection, valley fever, athlete's foot Poisonous mushrooms - Mycotoxins: fungal toxins in general - There are old mushroom hunters and bold mushroom hunters - But there are no old, bold mushroom hunters - Allergies: mold - Aflaxtonin: liver cancer causing toxins Fungal meningitis  - This caused 64 deaths from contaminated steroids - Deaths in sept 2012 - Trial started jan 9, 2017 - President of company is acquitted of murder mar 2017 - Convicted of cover ups: gets 9 years in prison june 2017 Plant parasite that depends on mycorrhizae for nutrients - Ghost pipe September 19, 2024 Four kingdoms in domain eukarya - Prosits - Plants - Fungi - Animals While plants are renewable, plant diversity is non-renewable - Food - Fiber - Timber - Biofuel - Ecological processes - Medications: - Quinine - taxol - menthol - morphine Diversity of plants - Moss first, then ferns, then gymnosperm, and now angiosperms What makes you a plant? - A plant is a multicellular eukaryote that produces its own food by photosynthesis and has an embryo that develops within the protected environment of the female parent. Turmeric: root part  - Active ingredient: curcumin - Helps in digestion disorders - Antimicrobial properties - Antiseptic - Anti-inflammatory agent Food for thought - If turmeric has antibiotics properties, does it kill the good bacteria as well? - No it doesn't, it increases two of the good bacteria - Turmeric is a prebiotic because it promotes the growth of good bacteria while suppressing the growth of bad bacteria Malaria drug: artemisinin from the plant artemisia Harmful plants - Kudzu - Dodder - Red as beet, dry as a bone, blind as a bat, mad as a hatter Plants probably evolved from green algae about 425 million years ago Move to land - Advantages: - more sunlight - more carbon dioxide - more nutrients Challenges to life on land - Drying out (waxy cuticle) - Gas exchange (harder for C02 to go in and harder for oxygen to come out) - Roots - System of conductance (vascular system) - Xylem is name of tube that carries water and nutrients from the soil upwards - Phloem transfers the sugar - Strengthening molecule - Pollen (inside the pollen is the sperm of the plant) - Seeds - Flowers and fruits Put the following in order - Waxy cuticle - Stomata - Roots  - Xylem/phloem - Polen - Seeds - Flowers - Fruits Plant “family” tree - Non vascular plants do not possess vascular tissue - Vascular seedless plants possess vascular tissue - Gymnosperms produce seeds - Angiosperms produce flowers and fruits Features all land plants share: - Multicellular - Eukaryote - Cuticle - Photosynthesis - Alternation of generation - Photosynthesis: most plants - Sporophyte 2n=gametophyte n=sporophyte=gametophyte Alternation of generation - Gametophyte is a haploid - Game is the egg and sperm - Egg and sperm come together and fuse fertilization they are a haploid - After fertilization you get the zygote - Zygote grows into the sporophyte this is a diploid - Sporophyte is going to make the spores this is a diploid - Spores grow into the gametophyte this is haploid First group of plants: bryophytes (moss) Non vascular - Mosses, hornworts, liverworts - They don't have the vascular system  - They don’t have the tube so they don’t grow upwards Life cycle of moss - The green stuff is gametophyte (n) - The gametophyte made the sperm and egg by mitosis (n) - The sperm needs water that's why moss grow in wet areas - The sperm swim and reach the egg with the help of water - When it reaches the egg fertilization can happen because they fuse - Zygote then forms (2n) - Then sporophyte grows (2n) - Then spores go into gametophyte (n) - Peat bogs - Important carbon storage malaysia has converted massive areas of peat swamp forest into oil palm plantations September 24, 2024 Second Group of plants *seedless vascular plants* - Vascular tissue- a sort of infrastructure of tubes that begins in the roots and extends up the stem of a plant and out to the farthest tips of its leaves The evolution of vascular tissue made large plants possible Life cycle of ferns - Sporophyte makes the spores 2n - Spores grow into gametophyte n - Inside the gametophyte is the egg and sperm n - Egg and sperm fuse and form zygote 2n - Zygote grows into sporophyte 2n  Ferns: typical vascular plants - Fern gametophytes (n) are tiny - Even very young sporophytes (2n) are much longer Importance of ferns - The wet carboniferous era was dominated by the ferns Third group of plants: gymnosperms The advent of the seed opened new worlds to plants - Seeds - Pollen - Heterospory: microspore and megaspore What is a seed - An embryonic plant with its own supply of water and nutrients encased within a protective coating. Seeds contain multicellular embryo and a store of carbohydrate called endosperm, that can fuel the seeds initial growth. - Gymnosperms include pines, firs and redwoods - Angiosperms include all of the flowering plants and trees Flowering plant seed (32000 years old) Jatropha seeds - Palm tree seeds - Palm oil: cooking Gymnosperms (conifers) - Douglas fir, spruce, redwood The gymnospheres - Include 4 major groups - Confers, cycads, gnetophytes and the ginkgo Conifers include the tallest and longest living trees  - Redwood: 379 feet tall - Bristelcone pine: 4800 years old - Shore pine: 20 cm tall Cones: reproductive structure - Male cones are smaller and release pollen that is blown by the wind to the ovules - The female cone has ovules on the protruding scales. - The pine cones we are familiar with are the female cones, and they produce seeds - Cones are the reproductive structures of gymnosperms New feature: pollen - Pollen houses the sperm and lets fertilization occur without water - Every tree has a specific pollen signature Male and female cones - Female cones have seed wings rest on top of the scales - The seed and of the wind is protected in the center Life cycle of gymnosperms - Sporophyte - You have the male cone and female cone which are sporophyte - Inside the male cone is microspore - Inside the female cone is the megaspore - The spores grow into male gametophyte (this is the pollen) - Inside the pollen is the sperm - The megaspore becomes the female gametophyte - It will go on and make the egg - Fertilization happens in the female cone - Then you get zygote - Zygote turns into the seed - Seed grows into the sporophyte How are seed formed - The gametophyte - A life stage that produces haploid gametes - Pollen grains(male gametophyte) and ovules (female gametophyte) - Pollen produces a pollen tube that grows into the ovule, In the ovule, there is the egg cell and the endosperm cell. This sperm travels through the pollen tube and fertilizes the egg and a zygote (which eventually turns into a diploid embryo) is formed. Then a seed is formed - The external layer of the ovule forms the seed coat New features in gymnosperms - Pollen grains  - Seed - Don’t release spores - Only pollen is released Fourth group of plants: angiosperms Angiosperms are the dominant plants today - Members are flowering trees, bushes, herb, and grasses (about 250,000 species) Flower structure - - Stamen is the male reproductive structure and makes the pollen - Carpel is the female reproductive structure Angiosperms also release pollen - This is carried by wind, birds, insects, animals Flowers and their pollinators - Tube: pollinator with long tongues, such as months - Intricate/closed: pollinators such as bees - White: nocturnal pollinators, such as months and bats - Bright: visually oriented, diurnal pollinators, such as birds, butterflies, and bees - Sweet odor: pollinators with a good sense of smell such as months, butterflies and bees - Stinky odor: flies, looking for rotten meat on which to lay eggs - No odor: pollinators with a poor sense of smell, such as birds Pollution is transfer of pollen but it need not always lead to fertilization Honey bees losing their way because of pesticides After fertilization seed develops seed dispersal by animals Egg formation Pollen (male gametophyte) formation (inside pollen, sperm forms) Double fertilization leads to zygote and endosperm formation New features in angiosperms - Flowers - Pollinators - Rapid seed production - Fruit development Clicker question class 7 1. Which feature of fungi is evidence that fungi are more closely related to animals than plants? - Fungal DNA sequence 2. Fine fibers wrapped around plant roots shows what? - A healthy plant 3. The body of a fungus - Is a large mass below the surface 4. Lichens are  - Symbiotic associations of photosynthesis and fungi Class 8 1. A plant is a - Multicellular eukaryote 2. The right order in the plant evolution process - Vascular system, pollen, seed, flower 3. Which helps land plants to exchange gasses with the environment - Stomata 4. In moss the spores are - Haploid Class 9 1. Difference between a moss and a fern include: - Presence of vascular system 2. Which answer is not true for gymnosperms. - The male and female reproductive structures look the same 3. A fern spreads its offspring to distant locations by. - Spores Review sheets Fungi 1. How do fungi get their food? Describe fungal nutrition, and compare it to plants or animals. - All fungi rely on other organisms to obtain food, and most do so by digesting dead material. This ability makes them important decomposers in many ecosystems. 2. What makes fungal cells different from plant cells? What other group of organism uses chitin as a building material? - Fungi also have cell walls, but the cell walls, instead of including cellulose as plants do, are made of protein called chitin, a chemical important in producing the exoskeleton of insects. 3. What’s a mycelium? - Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus or fungus-like bacterial colony, consisting of a mass of branching , thread-like hyphae. 4. What is the function of a mushroom? When you see a mushroom, how much of the fungus is really visible? - The visible part of the mushroom is actually the reproductive structure. The feeding structures of hyphae reach deep into the rotting wood to obtain nutrients. 5. What is the fungal body structure? - A mass or branched, tubular filaments enclosed by a rigid cell wall 6. Compare fungal reproduction with human reproduction. - Humans produce sexually while most fungi can produce sexually and asexually. Haploid is 1 set of chromosomes, denoted by the letter n, egg, sperm, or spores - Diploids is 2 sets of chromosomes, denoted by 2n - Dikaryotic forms= n a dikaryotic cell, there are two separate haploid nuclei that share the same cytoplasm. 7. Can fungi reproduce sexually? Can fungi reproduce asexually? Are spores involved in both kinds of reproduction? What type of cell division helps spores form in a) sexual reproduction b) asexual reproduction? - Perfect fungi can reproduce both sexually and asexually, while imperfect fungi reproduce only asexually by mitosis. In both sexually and asexual reproduction, fungi produce spores that disperse from the parent organism. 8. How do fungi benefit humans? How do they harm us? Know some examples - Benefits: decomposers= digest dead matter - Food making fungus= yeast - Medically useful fungi = provides antibiotics - Ways they harm us: - Chytrid fungi causes infectious disease, some fungi are parasites - Fungi cause the majority of plant diseases like wheat rust and smut - Mycosis: fungal disease - Ringworm, vaginal yeast infection, athletes foot - Fungal meningitis caused 37 deaths found in sealed steroid vials 9. How do fungi benefit plants? How do the fungi and plants benefit from the interaction? - Plants will get more nutrients/ nitrogen - lichens= fungi + green algae or cyanobacteria - Fungi gets food from algae and cyanobacteria, algae 10. You treat soil with a fungicide, and later notice that plants grown in this soil are stunted. What’s going on?  - If you use fungicide you will kill the plant. Fungi is good for plants 11. What is a lichen? Describe the two organisms found in this structure, and how each one benefits from the interaction. - lichens= fungi + green algae or cyanobacteria. - Fungi gets food from algae and cyanobacteria, algae/ cyanobacteria get a protector 12. What is a mycorrhizae? Is it good for the plants? - Mycorrhizae are beneficial fungi that form a symbiotic relationship with the roots of most plants. Yes, mycorrhizae are generally good for plants. They improve plant growth.