BIO 101 Study Guide Part 1 PDF

This list is only a study guide, NOT a complete list of all the material on the test. Make sure to go through your lecture notes, recordings and power point slides before you try to answer these questions. Any material discussed in the lecture is potential test material. Part 1: Evolution: History...

This list is only a study guide, NOT a complete list of all the material on the test. Make sure to go through your lecture notes, recordings and power point slides before you try to answer these questions. Any material discussed in the lecture is potential test material. Part 1: Evolution: History and mechanisms of evolution What is evolution? Evolution is the process by which species of organisms change over time through variations in traits and the selection of those traits that offer a survival or reproductive advantage. It explains how life on Earth has diversified and adapted to different environments. Evolution operates through mechanisms What is the name of the book that Darwin published? "On the Origin of Species" in 1859. The full title is "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life." In this book, Darwin presented the theory of evolution by natural selection, which proposed that species evolve over time through the differential survival and reproduction of organisms with advantageous traits. This work revolutionized biology and laid the foundation for the modern understanding of evolutionary theory. Which discoveries, and scientists influenced Darwin most? Charles Darwin's theory of evolution was influenced by numerous scientists and discoveries. Geologists like James Hutton and Charles Lyell, through their work on uniformitarianism and the Earth's immense age, helped Darwin understand that gradual processes could account for biological changes over long periods. The concept of artificial selection, developed by agriculturalist Robert Bakewell, demonstrated how traits could be selected over generations, inspiring Darwin’s idea of natural selection. Thomas Malthus’s work on population growth and competition for resources influenced Darwin’s understanding of survival struggles. While Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed that species evolve, Darwin rejected his mechanisms but drew from his evolutionary ideas. Carl Linnaeus’s taxonomy provided a framework for understanding the relationships between species, while Richard Owen's work on comparative anatomy reinforced the idea of common ancestry. Alfred Russel Wallace, who independently formulated the idea of natural selection, contributed valuable biogeographical evidence, particularly regarding species adaptation. Additionally, Karl Ernst von Baer’s embryological studies and Georges Cuvier’s fossil work helped Darwin understand common developmental stages and extinction, further shaping his evolutionary thinking. Together, these discoveries and ideas formed the foundation for Darwin’s groundbreaking theory of evolution by natural selection. What does it mean to be evolutionarily fit? Being evolutionarily fit means having traits or characteristics that increase an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment, thereby passing those beneficial traits on to future generations. In evolutionary terms, fitness refers to an organism's ability to leave offspring that can also survive and reproduce. The more offspring an organism produces that go on to reproduce themselves, the higher its evolutionary fitness. Fitness doesn't necessarily mean physical strength or size; it is about how well-suited an organism is to its environment and how well it can adapt to changes. Evolutionary fitness is determined by the combination of traits that contribute to survival, mating success, and the ability to rear offspring in a given environment. According to Darwin the mechanism of evolution is by _____natural selection___ Review the main points of Natural Selection.  Variation: Within a population, individuals show variation in traits (e.g., size, color, behavior). These variations can be inherited.  Overproduction: More offspring are produced than can survive. Resources such as food, space, and mates are limited, leading to competition.  Struggle for Survival: Individuals must compete for limited resources. Some individuals are better suited to their environment, allowing them to survive and reproduce more successfully.  Differential Reproduction: Organisms with advantageous traits (those that improve survival and reproduction) are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing these traits on to the next generation.  Adaptation: Over time, favorable traits become more common in the population, leading to adaptation to the environment. What is the difference between natural selection and artificial selection? natural selection is a passive process driven by the environment, while artificial selection is a human-directed process aimed at achieving specific traits. Natural selection can happen in 3 ways: directional, disruptional, and stabilizing selection. Know what these terms mean  Directional Selection: Favors one extreme of a trait (e.g., larger beaks).  Disruptive Selection: Favors both extremes and selects against the middle (e.g., small and large beaks, but not medium-sized).  Stabilizing Selection: Favors average traits and reduces extremes (e.g., average birth weight in humans). Variation occurs within most population. What are the causes of variation seen within population? ANS: Mutation, crossing over, random alignment of chromosomes during meiosis and random fertilization of egg and sperm. All of these events can bring about variation. _________mutations___________ the only way new alleles are formed. Define Artificial Selection, Sexual selection.   Artificial Selection is human-driven, with humans intentionally selecting for traits.  Sexual Selection occurs naturally and is driven by an organism's ability to attract mates and reproduce, often leading to traits that may not necessarily be beneficial for survival but are advantageous for mating. Which of the below statement is true? (Is it choice 1 or choice 2) 1) An individual can evolve. 2) A population evolves, not an individual. True or False. Natural selection produces perfect organisms. What are the five mechanisms of evolution?  Natural Selection: This is the process by which individuals with traits that are better suited to their environment have higher survival and reproduction rates, passing those beneficial traits on to the next generation. Over time, this leads to changes in the population's genetic makeup.  Genetic Drift: Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of allele frequencies in a population due to chance events. It is especially significant in small populations, where random changes can have a large impact on the genetic makeup, leading to the loss of some alleles and the fixation of others.  Gene Flow (Migration): Gene flow occurs when individuals from different populations interbreed, transferring new alleles into the gene pool. This can introduce new genetic variation and reduce differences between populations, promoting genetic diversity within a population.  Mutation: Mutations are random changes in an organism's DNA that create new alleles. These new alleles may provide new traits that can be acted upon by natural selection. Mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation in a population.  Non-Random Mating: In some cases, individuals are more likely to mate with others who have similar traits (assortative mating) or traits that are advantageous for reproduction. Non- random mating can influence allele frequencies in the population and affect genetic diversity. What is the difference between gene flow and founder’s effect?  Gene Flow involves the movement of genes between populations through migration or interbreeding, increasing genetic diversity between populations.  Founder's Effect involves a small group of individuals founding a new population with limited genetic variation, leading to reduced diversity and potential genetic differences in the new population compared to the original. Genetic drift usually leads to ___low___ (choose high or low) genetic diversity Part 2: Evidence for Evolution What are the different lines of evidence for evolution? Which one is the strongest of them? The main lines of evidence for evolution include fossil evidence, comparative anatomy, embryology, molecular biology, biogeography, and direct observation. Of these, molecular biology (genetics) is considered the strongest, as it provides direct, quantifiable data on evolutionary relationships through DNA comparisons across species. Fossils Why is the fossil record incomplete? The fossil record is incomplete because fossilization is rare, geological processes can destroy fossils, and certain organisms or environments are less likely to produce fossils. How old is the oldest fossil evidence of life? Ans: 3.5 billion years What is the difference between relative dating and absolute dating of fossils? Relative dating estimates the age of fossils based on their position in layers of rock (strata), with the assumption that deeper layers are older, while absolute dating determines the actual age of a fossil using techniques like radiometric dating, which measures the decay of radioactive isotopes. What is half life? Half-life is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample of a radioactive substance to decay into another element or isotope. It is a constant rate for each radioactive isotope and is used in absolute dating to determine the age of materials, such as fossils or rocks, by measuring the amount of remaining radioactive isotope. Know facts about transitional fossils and index fossils  Transitional fossils show intermediate forms between species and provide evidence of evolutionary change.  Index fossils are used to date and correlate the age of rock layers, helping establish the relative timing of fossilized organisms. Biogeography: What is biogeography? Biogeography is the study of the geographic distribution of species and ecosystems across the planet, and how they are influenced by environmental factors, historical events, and evolutionary processes. It explores how species are spread across different regions, how they adapt to different environments, and how they have evolved in response to factors like climate, geographic barriers, and continental drift. Why are fossils of the same plant species showing up in different continents of the world? Define Comparative Anatomy. Comparative anatomy is the study of the similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. It involves comparing the structure of body parts, such as limbs, organs, and skeletal systems, across various organisms to understand their evolutionary relationships and common ancestry. Comparative ana Distinguish between Homologous Structures and Analogous Structures.   Homologous Structures have a common evolutionary origin and may have different functions in different species.  Analogous Structures have similar functions but evolved independently in different species without a common ancestor. What is divergent evolution? Divergent evolution is the process by which two or more related species become more dissimilar over time, typically due to different environmental pressures or ecological niches. This results from a common ancestor giving rise to different species that evolve distinct traits as they adapt to their specific environments. What is convergent evolution? Log in Sign up You said: According to Darwin the mechanism of evolution is by ___________ ChatGPT said: ChatGPT According to Charles Darwin, the mechanism of evolution is natural selection. Natural selection is the process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce, passing on advantageous traits to the next generation. Over time, this leads to changes in the traits of a population, driving the evolutionary process. You said: main points of natural selection ChatGPT said: ChatGPT The main points of natural selection are: 1. Variation: Within a population, individuals show variation in traits (e.g., size, color, behavior). These variations can be inherited. 2. Overproduction: More offspring are produced than can survive. Resources such as food, space, and mates are limited, leading to competition. 3. Struggle for Survival: Individuals must compete for limited resources. Some individuals are better suited to their environment, allowing them to survive and reproduce more successfully. 4. Differential Reproduction: Organisms with advantageous traits (those that improve survival and reproduction) are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing these traits on to the next generation. 5. Adaptation: Over time, favorable traits become more common in the population, leading to adaptation to the environment. Natural selection results in the gradual accumulation of beneficial traits, leading to evolutionary change in a population over generations. You said: What is the difference between natural selection and artificial selection? ChatGPT said: ChatGPT The main difference between natural selection and artificial selection lies in the forces that drive the selection process and the purpose behind it: 1. Source of Selection:  Natural Selection: Occurs naturally in nature. It is driven by environmental factors, such as climate, food availability, predators, and competition. Organisms with traits that are advantageous for survival and reproduction in their environment are more likely to pass on their genes to the next generation.  Artificial Selection: Also known as selective breeding, is driven by humans. It involves the intentional selection and breeding of organisms with specific desirable traits. Humans control which individuals reproduce to enhance or emphasize certain characteristics, such as size, color, or behavior. 2. Purpose:  Natural Selection: The purpose is not directed or intentional. It results from environmental pressures, leading to organisms that are better adapted to survive and reproduce in their specific environment.  Artificial Selection: The purpose is intentional and guided by human preferences or needs, such as creating plants or animals with desired traits (e.g., high milk production in cows, or specific flower colors in plants). 3. Speed of Change:  Natural Selection: It generally occurs over longer timescales, with gradual changes in a population's genetic makeup.  Artificial Selection: It can result in rapid changes within a few generations because humans can choose specific individuals to breed for desired traits, often causing more rapid changes compared to natural selection. 4. Examples:  Natural Selection: The development of camouflage in animals (e.g., moths adapting to blend in with tree bark) or the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.  Artificial Selection: Dog breeding (selecting for traits like size, coat color, or behavior), or breeding crops for higher yield or resistance to pests. In summary, natural selection is a passive process driven by the environment, while artificial selection is a human-directed process aimed at achieving specific traits. You said: Natural selection can happen in 3 ways: directional, disruptional, and stabilizing selection. Know what these terms mean ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Yes, natural selection can occur in three different ways, each shaping a population's traits in distinct patterns. Here's an overview of directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selection: 1. Directional Selection:  Definition: Directional selection favors one extreme of a trait's variation, causing the population's trait distribution to shift in that direction.  How it Works: Individuals with traits at one extreme (e.g., very large or very small) have higher fitness, leading to an increase in those traits over time. The entire population shifts toward that favored trait.   Example: If larger beak sizes in birds are advantageous for accessing food, over time, the population will evolve to have larger beaks. An example in nature is the industrial melanism in moths, where darker-colored moths became more common due to industrial pollution darkening tree trunks. 2. Disruptive Selection:  Definition: Disruptive selection favors both extreme ends of a trait spectrum, while individuals with intermediate traits are selected against.  How it Works: The population splits into two distinct groups with extreme traits, and the middle ground becomes less common or disappears entirely. This can lead to speciation over time, where new species emerge from the two extremes.  Example: In a population of birds with either very small or very large beaks, those with intermediate beak sizes may be less effective at obtaining food, while small-beaked birds excel at eating small seeds and large-beaked birds can crack larger seeds. This selection can result in two distinct groups. 3. Stabilizing Selection:  Definition: Stabilizing selection favors the average or intermediate traits and selects against extreme variations.  How it Works: It reduces genetic variation by favoring individuals with traits that are closer to the population's mean, thus maintaining a stable phenotype. This is common when the environment is stable and doesn't change much.  Example: Human birth weight is an example of stabilizing selection. Babies of average weight tend to have higher survival rates, while very low or very high birth weights can lead to higher risks for both the baby and mother. Summary of the Three Types of Selection:  Directional Selection: Favors one extreme of a trait (e.g., larger beaks).  Disruptive Selection: Favors both extremes and selects against the middle (e.g., small and large beaks, but not medium-sized).  Stabilizing Selection: Favors average traits and reduces extremes (e.g., average birth weight in humans). Each type of selection plays a key role in shaping the genetic makeup of populations over time. You said: ____________________ the only way new alleles are formed. ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Mutation is the only way new alleles are formed. Mutations are random changes in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. These changes can result in new alleles, which are different versions of a gene. Mutations can occur in various ways, such as through errors in DNA replication or environmental factors like radiation. These new alleles can then be passed on to future generations, contributing to genetic variation in a population. You said: Define Artificial Selection, Sexual selection. ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Artificial Selection:  Definition: Artificial selection, also known as selective breeding, is the process by which humans intentionally choose specific organisms with desirable traits to reproduce, thereby passing those traits on to the next generation.  Purpose: The goal is to enhance or develop certain characteristics in a population, such as increased size, improved appearance, or enhanced productivity (e.g., higher milk production in cows, larger fruits, or specific traits in pet dogs).  Example: Breeding dogs for particular traits like size, coat type, or temperament. For instance, the breeding of German Shepherds for herding or border collies for agility. Sexual Selection:  Definition: Sexual selection is a form of natural selection in which individuals with traits that increase their chances of attracting mates have a higher reproductive success. These traits may not necessarily be advantageous for survival but are beneficial in securing mates.  Purpose: The goal is to enhance an individual's ability to attract and mate with partners, thus passing on their genes to the next generation.  Example: The peacock's elaborate tail feathers are an example of sexual selection. Although these large tails might be a disadvantage in terms of survival (making the peacock more visible to predators), they are attractive to peahens, leading to greater reproductive success for males with the most impressive tails. Key Differences:  Artificial Selection is human-driven, with humans intentionally selecting for traits.  Sexual Selection occurs naturally and is driven by an organism's ability to attract mates and reproduce, often leading to traits that may not necessarily be beneficial for survival but are advantageous for mating. You said: Which of the below statement is true? (Is it choice 1 or choice 2) 1) An individual can evolve. 2) A population evolves, not an individual. ChatGPT said: ChatGPT The correct statement is: 2) A population evolves, not an individual. Evolution occurs at the level of populations over many generations, as genetic variations accumulate and certain traits become more or less common. While an individual may experience changes (e.g., growth or aging), evolution refers to genetic changes in the population over time. Individuals do not evolve during their lifetimes, but they can pass on genetic variations to their offspring, contributing to population-level evolution. You said: True or False. Natural selection produces perfect organisms. ChatGPT said: ChatGPT False. Natural selection does not produce perfect organisms. It only selects for traits that increase an organism's fitness in a specific environment, meaning those traits improve an organism's chances of surviving and reproducing in that particular context. However, organisms are not "perfect" because:  Environmental conditions change: Traits that are advantageous in one environment may not be beneficial in another.  Trade-offs: Natural selection often involves compromises, where beneficial traits in one aspect of life may come with costs in others.  Genetic constraints: There may be limited genetic variation available for selection to act upon, and not all potential beneficial traits are possible.  Random events: Evolution also involves genetic drift and mutations, which introduce randomness into the process. Therefore, organisms are not "perfect" but rather are well-suited to their environment at a given time. You said: What are the five mechanisms of evolution? ChatGPT said: ChatGPT The five main mechanisms of evolution are: 1. Natural Selection: This is the process by which individuals with traits that are better suited to their environment have higher survival and reproduction rates, passing those beneficial traits on to the next generation. Over time, this leads to changes in the population's genetic makeup. 2. Genetic Drift: Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of allele frequencies in a population due to chance events. It is especially significant in small populations, where random changes can have a large impact on the genetic makeup, leading to the loss of some alleles and the fixation of others. 3. Gene Flow (Migration): Gene flow occurs when individuals from different populations interbreed, transferring new alleles into the gene pool. This can introduce new genetic variation and reduce differences between populations, promoting genetic diversity within a population. 4. Mutation: Mutations are random changes in an organism's DNA that create new alleles. These new alleles may provide new traits that can be acted upon by natural selection. Mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation in a population. 5. Non-Random Mating: In some cases, individuals are more likely to mate with others who have similar traits (assortative mating) or traits that are advantageous for reproduction. Non-random mating can influence allele frequencies in the population and affect genetic diversity. These mechanisms work together to drive evolution by changing the genetic makeup of populations over time. You said: What is the difference between gene flow and founder’s effect? ChatGPT said: ChatGPT The difference between gene flow and the founder's effect lies in the movement of individuals and how genetic variation is affected in a population. Here's an explanation of each: 1. Gene Flow:  Definition: Gene flow refers to the movement of alleles between populations due to the migration or interbreeding of individuals from different populations.  How it works: When individuals from one population move to another population and reproduce, they introduce their genetic material into the new population, increasing genetic diversity.  Impact: Gene flow tends to reduce genetic differences between populations, as it increases the mixing of genes. It can introduce new alleles into a population, contributing to evolutionary changes.  Example: If a group of birds from Population A migrates to Population B and mates with the birds in Population B, alleles from Population A will spread into Population B, increasing genetic diversity. 2. Founder's Effect:  Definition: The founder’s effect is a type of genetic drift that occurs when a small group of individuals separates from a larger population to form a new colony, carrying with them only a subset of the original population's genetic diversity.  How it works: When a small number of individuals "found" a new population (often due to migration or isolation), the genetic variation in the new population is limited by the alleles carried by the founders. This results in a population that may have much less genetic diversity compared to the original population.  Impact: The founder’s effect can lead to reduced genetic variation and may cause certain traits to become more or less common in the new population by chance.  Example: A few individuals from a large population of beetles might colonize a small island. The genetic diversity in the new beetle population will be much smaller, potentially leading to higher frequencies of certain traits in the new population that were present in the original founders. Key Differences:  Gene Flow involves the movement of genes between populations through migration or interbreeding, increasing genetic diversity between populations.  Founder's Effect involves a small group of individuals founding a new population with limited genetic variation, leading to reduced diversity and potential genetic differences in the new population compared to the original. In short:  Gene flow mixes genetic material between populations.  Founder's effect results from a small number of individuals creating a new, genetically limited population. You said: Genetic drift usually leads to ______ (choose high or low) genetic diversity ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Genetic drift usually leads to low genetic diversity. Genetic drift is a random process that causes allele frequencies to change over time, particularly in small populations. It can result in the loss of genetic variation, as alleles may become fixed (i.e., they are the only allele left in the population) or lost entirely by chance, reducing the overall genetic diversity in the population. This effect is more pronounced in small populations because random events can have a larger impact on their genetic composition. You said: What are the different lines of evidence for evolution? Which one is the strongest of them? ChatGPT said: ChatGPT There are several lines of evidence that support the theory of evolution. The main types include: 1. Fossil Evidence:  Fossils provide a historical record of life on Earth, showing how species have changed over time. Transitional fossils, which show characteristics of two different groups, help illustrate how one species may have evolved into another.  Example: Fossils of early hominids show the gradual development of traits like bipedalism and larger brain size in the evolution of humans. 2. Comparative Anatomy:  The study of the similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. Key concepts include: o Homologous structures: Body parts that have a similar structure due to shared ancestry but may serve different functions (e.g., the limbs of humans, whales, and bats). o Vestigial structures: Body parts that have lost their original function but are remnants from ancestors (e.g., the human appendix or the pelvis in whales). o Analogous structures: Body parts that have a similar function but evolved independently (e.g., wings in birds and insects). 3. Embryology:  The study of the development of embryos in different species. Similar embryonic stages among different species suggest a common ancestry.  Example: Early embryos of vertebrates (humans, chickens, fish) look strikingly similar, indicating a shared evolutionary origin. 4. Molecular Biology (Genetics):  The study of DNA, proteins, and genetic material. All living organisms share the same basic genetic code, and many genes are highly conserved across species.  The more closely related two species are, the more similar their DNA sequences are. For example, humans and chimpanzees share about 98-99% of their DNA.  Genetic evidence provides a powerful method to trace evolutionary relationships and common ancestry. 5. Biogeography:  The study of the geographic distribution of species. Similar species are often found in regions that are geographically close to each other, and the distribution of species can be explained by past events like continental drift and the migration of species.  Example: The unique species found on the Galápagos Islands, which helped Darwin formulate his theory of natural selection, are a prime example of how isolation and geographic barriers contribute to evolution. 6. Direct Observation:   Observing evolutionary changes in real-time, particularly in species with short lifespans. Examples include antibiotic resistance in bacteria and the evolution of pesticide resistance in insects.  Example: The evolution of peppered moths in industrial England, where the population shifted from light-colored moths to dark-colored ones due to pollution. The Strongest Line of Evidence: Molecular Biology (Genetics) While all these lines of evidence are important, molecular biology is often considered the strongest evidence for evolution. This is because:  Genetic similarities among species provide direct, quantifiable data on their evolutionary relationships.  The discovery of DNA sequencing has allowed scientists to compare genomes across species with great precision, revealing the molecular basis for evolutionary changes.  Molecular evidence can corroborate and enhance findings from fossils, comparative anatomy, and other lines of evidence, giving a clearer picture of evolutionary processes. Genetic evidence, including the similarity of DNA sequences, offers a detailed, measurable, and highly reliable approach to understanding how species are related and how they have evolved over time. You said: summarize that into two sentences to answer the question ChatGPT said: ChatGPT The main lines of evidence for evolution include fossil evidence, comparative anatomy, embryology, molecular biology, biogeography, and direct observation. Of these, molecular biology (genetics) is considered the strongest, as it provides direct, quantifiable data on evolutionary relationships through DNA comparisons across species. You said: Why is the fossil record incomplete? ChatGPT said: ChatGPT The fossil record is incomplete for several reasons: 1. Fossilization is rare: For an organism to fossilize, it must be buried quickly after death, which is a rare occurrence. Many organisms decompose or are consumed before fossilization can occur. 2. Geological processes: Erosion, plate tectonics, and other geological events can destroy or deeply bury fossils, making them inaccessible or lost over time. 3. Bias in fossilization: Fossilization is more likely to occur in certain environments (e.g., wet, low-lying areas) and with organisms that have hard parts (e.g., bones, shells). Soft- bodied organisms and those in less favorable environments are less likely to fossilize. 4. Time gaps: The Earth's history spans billions of years, and many species may not have left behind fossil evidence, particularly if they existed for short periods or in low numbers. These factors contribute to an incomplete fossil record, though it still provides significant evidence for understanding evolutionary history. You said: summarize in one sentence ChatGPT said: ChatGPT The fossil record is incomplete because fossilization is rare, geological processes can destroy fossils, and certain organisms or environments are less likely to produce fossils. You said: What is the difference between relative dating and absolute dating of fossils? ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Relative dating estimates the age of fossils based on their position in layers of rock (strata), with the assumption that deeper layers are older, while absolute dating determines the actual age of a fossil using techniques like radiometric dating, which measures the decay of radioactive isotopes. You said: What is half life? ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Half-life is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample of a radioactive substance to decay into another element or isotope. It is a constant rate for each radioactive isotope and is used in absolute dating to determine the age of materials, such as fossils or rocks, by measuring the amount of remaining radioactive isotope. You said: Know facts about transitional fossils and index fossils ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Transitional Fossils:  Definition: Transitional fossils are fossils of organisms that show intermediate characteristics between two different groups, providing evidence of evolutionary change.  Significance: They offer insight into the gradual transformation of species over time and support the theory of evolution by illustrating how one species evolved into another.  Examples: o Archaeopteryx: A famous transitional fossil showing features of both dinosaurs and birds, such as feathers (bird-like) and teeth (dinosaur-like). o Tiktaalik: An early fish with both fish and tetrapod (four-limbed vertebrate) characteristics, illustrating the transition from water to land-dwelling animals. Index Fossils:  Definition: Index fossils are fossils of organisms that lived during a specific time period and had a wide geographic distribution but were limited in duration. They are used to help date the layers of rock in which they are found.  Significance: These fossils are useful for relative dating because they help establish the relative ages of rocks and other fossils by associating them with a specific time frame.  Characteristics: o Short-lived: They existed for a relatively short period, making them useful for dating.  o Widespread: They had a broad geographic distribution, so their presence can be used to correlate rock layers across different regions.  Examples: o Trilobites: These marine arthropods are common index fossils for the Paleozoic era. o Ammonites: These extinct mollusks are often used as index fossils for the Mesozoic era, particularly for the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. In summary:  Transitional fossils show intermediate forms between species and provide evidence of evolutionary change.  Index fossils are used to date and correlate the age of rock layers, helping establish the relative timing of fossilized organisms. You said: What is biogeography? ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Biogeography is the study of the geographic distribution of species and ecosystems across the planet, and how they are influenced by environmental factors, historical events, and evolutionary processes. It explores how species are spread across different regions, how they adapt to different environments, and how they have evolved in response to factors like climate, geographic barriers, and continental drift. Biogeography provides important evidence for evolution, as the distribution patterns of species often reflect their evolutionary history and the movement of continents over time. You said: Define Comparative Anatomy. ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Comparative anatomy is the study of the similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. It involves comparing the structure of body parts, such as limbs, organs, and skeletal systems, across various organisms to understand their evolutionary relationships and common ancestry. Comparative anatomy provides strong evidence for evolution, as similar structures in different species (known as homologous structures) suggest a common origin, while differences can arise due to adaptation to different environments. You said: Distinguish between Homologous Structures and Analogous Structures. ChatGPT said: ChatGPT Homologous Structures and Analogous Structures are both important concepts in comparative anatomy, but they differ in their origin and function: Homologous Structures:  Definition: Structures that are similar in different species because they have a common evolutionary origin.   Origin: These structures are derived from a common ancestor and have the same basic structure, even though they may serve different functions.  Example: The forelimbs of humans, whales, bats, and cats are homologous structures. While the functions of these limbs differ (e.g., grasping, swimming, flying, walking), they all share a similar bone structure, indicating a common ancestry. Analogous Structures:  Definition: Structures that serve the same function in different species but do not have a common evolutionary origin.  Origin: These structures evolve independently in species due to similar environmental pressures or similar functions (a process called convergent evolution).  Example: The wings of birds and insects are analogous structures. Both are used for flying, but they evolved independently from different ancestral structures (bird wings are modified forelimbs, while insect wings are extensions of the body). Key Differences:  Homologous Structures have a common evolutionary origin and may have different functions in different species.  Analogous Structures have similar functions but evolved independently in different species without a common ancestor. What is divergent evolution? Divergent evolution is the process by which two or more related species become more dissimilar over time, typically due to different environmental pressures or ecological niches. This results from a common ancestor giving rise to different species that evolve distinct traits as they adapt to their specific environments. Key Points:  Common Ancestry: Divergent evolution begins with a common ancestor, and over time, the descendant species accumulate differences.  Adaptation to Different Environments: As species spread into new environments, they adapt to their unique conditions, leading to the development of different traits.  Examples: o The Darwin's finches on the Galápagos Islands evolved different beak shapes based on the types of food available on each island. o The evolution of mammals into various forms (e.g., whales, bats, and elephants) from a common mammalian ancestor. Divergent evolution is a key mechanism in the formation of new species and increases biodiversity over time. What is convergent evolution? Convergent evolution is the process by which unrelated or distantly related species independently evolve similar traits or characteristics due to similar environmental pressures or ecological niches. These species do not share a recent common ancestor, but they develop similar adaptations because they face similar challenges or needs in their environments.  What are vestigial structures. Know examples. Vestigial structures are body parts or organs that have lost their original function through evolution, such as the human appendix, whale pelvic bones, or the wings of flightless birds. Embryology = study of early developmental patterns. Organisms that share a common ancestry tend to share developmental patterns. Studying embryology can help establish evolutionary relationships. What are some things common to call embryos? Common features of embryos in many vertebrates include pharyngeal pouches, a tail, somites, a notochord, and similar organ development, reflecting shared evolutionary ancestry. Common features of embryos in many vertebrates are often referred to as pharyngeal pouches (gill slits), tails, somites, notochord, and early organ development. Molecular Biology Data (Biochemistry data) Molecular data is very useful in comparing organisms that are not closely related enough to have similar features. (E.g. yeasts and humans) What is used to compare the species in this line of evidence? Ans: DNA, RNA, Protein, Lipids What are vestigial genes? Know some examples. Vestigial genes are genes that have lost their original function over time, and examples include the non-functional GLO gene in humans (related to vitamin C synthesis), pseudogenes like those for olfactory receptors, and the inactive Harbinger gene in humans. What are homeotic genes? Homeotic genes are genes that control the development of specific body structures and the overall body plan during embryonic development, determining where particular body parts will form. They play a crucial role in regulating the identity of body segments and ensuring proper organ placement. What are housekeeping genes? Housekeeping genes are genes involved in regular cell metabolic activities (respiration, digestion, etc). How do the homeotic genes and housekeeping genes support common ancestry?Homeotic genes and housekeeping genes support common ancestry by showing that essential developmental and cellular functions are highly conserved across diverse species, indicating a shared evolutionary origin. What is macroevolution? What is microevolution? Which takes place on a geological time scale? Macroevolution refers to large-scale evolutionary changes that occur over long periods of time, leading to the formation of new species or higher taxonomic groups, such as the evolution of birds from dinosaurs. Microevolution, on the other hand, involves small-scale changes within a species or population, such as changes in allele frequencies due to natural selection or genetic drift. Macroevolution takes place on a geological time scale, while microevolution can occur over shorter time periods. Field and Lab experiments Data Can experiments be done to support the theory of evolution? Know some examples Yes Experiments supporting the theory of evolution include observing antibiotic resistance in bacteria, the color change in peppered moths, fruit fly genetic studies, and changes in finch beak size, all of which demonstrate natural selection and adaptation in real-time. Can significant evolutionary change occur in a short time? (In another words, can we observe populations evolving within the time frame of our lifetimes?) Yes, significant evolutionary change can occur in a short time, and we can observe populations evolving within our lifetimes, as seen in examples like the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, changes in the coloration of moths, or shifts in beak size in finch populations due to environmental changes. Note: Know about evolutionary trees and how to interpret evolutionary trees. Evolutionary trees, or phylogenetic trees, represent the evolutionary relationships among species, with branches showing lineages, nodes indicating common ancestors, and the root representing the most recent common ancestor of all species in the tree, helping to visualize evolutionary divergence and relatedness.