Basics of Civil Engineering PDF

Day 1 - Session 1 1 hr Components of a Building Substructure What is Basement A basement is a part of a building structure that is either entirely or partially below ground level. Helps to keep the structure stable and safe to live in. A basement is a useful place to live, work or store items. What is Basement The main purpose of constructing basements are: (a) To provide additional space, (b) As a form of buoyancy raft, (c) In some cases, basements may be needed for reducing net bearing pressure by the removal of the soil. What is Basement Uses of Basement Basic utility (car parking, plant rooms (excluding electrical equipment, workshops) Better utility (workshops and plant rooms requiring drier environments ) Habitable (ventilated residential and commercial areas) Special (archives, requiring controlled environments). What is Basement Commercial building Residential building Car parking Types of Basement Construction 1. Masonry Wall Basements The basement walls are constructed with masonry block units. There are many joints where the masonry units connect to each other so make sure your basement is properly reinforced and the walls are waterproofed (not damp proofed) to avoid water seepage. Types of Basement Construction 2. Concrete Basement A concrete basement is the most common type of basement and is made from poured concrete Types of Basement Construction 3. Poured concrete basements A poured cement basement is similar to a concrete basement but it is made from a mixture of cement and sand, which creates a stronger and more waterproof basement. Since concrete is more durable than alternative materials for basement walls, it is frequently preferred when building a basement. Poured Concrete basements would be the most reliable option to bear hydrostatic pressure because they are watertight and have no seams. Types of Basement Construction 4. Precast panel basements A precast basement is a prefabricated concrete foundation system that is pre-assembled offsite and delivered to the job site to be installed. Although less prevalent, precast panel basements can be just as sturdy as poured concrete basement construction. Precast basements can have moisture issues if the joints are not properly sealed, and they attract insects unless they have been treated with boric acid, so keep that in mind before settling on the basement construction. Issues Caused In Basement 1. Poor Drainage: Poor drainage can lead to basement ﬂooding, resulting in signiﬁcant damage to the structure, furniture and contents of the basement. 2. Structural Issues: Poorly built foundations and structural issues can lead to major structural damage that can be extremely costly to repair. 3. Mold: Poor ventilation and a damp environment can lead to mold growth in the basement, which can cause serious health issues. 4. Poor Insulation: Basements that are not properly insulated can lead to an uncomfortable living space and higher energy bills. 5. Radon Gas: Radon gas is a naturally occurring gas that is found in the soil and can seep into basements and cause serious health issues over time. 1) Where have you seen Basements before?. 2)What are the issues you have seen in basements ? 3) Uses of basements 4)Types of basements 5)Discuss about Basement What is Retaining wall Retaining wall is a structure that are designed and constructed to withstand lateral pressure of soil or hold back soil materials. The lateral pressure could be also due to earth ﬁlling, liquid pressure, sand, and other granular materials behind the retaining wall structure. Types of Retaining wall Gravity retaining wall Cantilever retaining wall Counterfort retaining wall Buttress wall Bridge abutment Box culvert Types of Retaining wall As per design considerations Conﬁned retaining wall Unconﬁned retaining wall Diaphragm wall Precast wall Conﬁned Retaining wall A conﬁned retaining wall is a type of retaining wall that is designed with the speciﬁc purpose of preventing lateral movement of the soil behind it. It is typically constructed with reinforced concrete wall,steel reinforcement bars or steel posts helps to provide additional strength and stability Unconﬁned Retaining wall Unconﬁned retaining walls are those that are not tied back into the soil or rock behind them, and instead rely on their own strength to hold back the material. Unconﬁned walls are typically made from masonry or concrete and can be built to any height, depending on the load they are designed to support. They can also be designed with additional reinforcement such as steel rebar or post-tensioning cables to increase their strength. Diaphragm wall Diaphragm walls are used mainly in full sites near an existing structure where the ground and depth would be challenging for piled walls. D-walls provide a cost-effective solution for permanent retaining walls and shafts with fewer construction joints. Precast wall These walls are made up of precast concrete blocks, which are molded and cast in a factory before being shipped to the job site. This type of wall is often used for residential and commercial applications, as it is a cost-effective and versatile solution for slopes, hills, and other areas of the property. Retaining wall concreting Prized for their strength and versatility, concrete retaining walls require precise construction methods. With this high level of technicality comes incredible versatility. Poured concrete retaining walls can be colored, textured, accented with embedded objects and much more. When installed properly, concrete offers much more room for customization than any other retaining wall material. Retaining wall concreting Proper proportioning of a retaining wall is just as important to its construction as its structural design. Construction-friendly proportions facilitate proper concrete placement and provide sufﬁcient room for structural reinforcement. The depth to the bottom of the base slab should be kept at a minimum of two feet. The length of the base slab is usually about 50% to 70% of the total height of the wall (bottom of base to top of stem). Retaining wall backﬁll Backﬁll is the geological materials used to ﬁll the gap beside the retaining wall. After de-shuttering of retaining wall, we have to ﬁll the remaining excavated area with the help of sand, soil, or gravel. These materials are known as backﬁll in retaining walls. Retaining wall backﬁll After the construction of the retaining wall, we have to backﬁll the retaining wall with soil, gravel, sand, clay etc. The best backﬁll material for retaining walls is gravel. Gravel do not capture the pore water or water between their void. So, extra load from the backﬁll to the retaining wall is reduced, unlike soil ﬁlling. Subsoil drainage Subsoil drainage systems are provided to drain away subsurface water in order to increase the stability of the ground and footings of buildings by inducing a more stable moisture regime. The perforated or slotted pipes are placed underground and are usually covered by geotextile material to stop soil from entering it. 1) Have anyone seen retaining wall construction ?. 2)Types of Retaining wall 3) Uses of Retaining wall 4) Difference between retaining wall and partition wall 5)Retaining wall required in all buildings? Day 1 - Session 2 Foundation Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely. Generally, the foundation can be classiﬁed into two ○ shallow foundation ○ deep foundation. Purpose of Foundation Provide overall lateral stability for the structure Foundation serve the function of providing a level surface for the construction of substructure Load Distribution is carried out evenly The load intensity is reduced to be within the safe bearing capacity of the soil The soil movement effect is resisted and prevented Scouring and the undermining issues are solved by the construction of foundation Foundation WHAT IS FOOTING? A part of the foundation helps to transmit the load of the structure to soil with proper distribution of the loads and it is made of concrete and reinforced cement concrete. The foundation depends on the soil type and its bearing capacity. One can choose the type of foundation or footing type by determining- 1. Total dead load and live load of the structure 2. The bearing capacity of the soil. Foundation Types of Foundation 1.Shallow foundation If the width of the foundation is greater than or equal to the depth of the foundation, it is a Shallow Foundation. Alternatively, If the depth to width ratio of the foundation is less than or equal to 2, it is called as a Shallow Foundation. 2.Deep foundation If the width of the foundation is smaller than the depth of the foundation is called the Deep Foundation. Alternatively, If the depth to width ratio of the foundation is greater than two is called the Deep Foundation. Types of Shallow Foundation 1. Isolated footing: It is the most commonly used footing, individually laid down and economical to use. It is used where soil is in good condition. It depends on the factored load on the column and safe bearing capacity of soil. The size of footing is in rectangular and square shape. It is also called pad footing. In this footing the bearing capacity of soil is high. Isolated Footing A. Pad Footing A pad or ﬂat isolated footing is constructed by plain or reinforced concrete. Its thickness is constant and its shape can be circular, rectangular or square. It is economic and requires less excavation but its size is highly depended on the load and it is less resistant in lateral forces. Isolated Footing 2. Sloped Footing Sloped isolated footing requires less concrete and reinforcements bars than pad footing. It is constructed cautiously in order to maintain a 45-degree inclination from all sides. The concrete mix used must be stiff in order to avoid sustaining viscous deformation Isolated Footing 3. Stepped Footing This type of footing includes the construction of a footing step by step until it reaches the desired width. This technique is mostly used in residential buildings but its utilization has been decayed over the last decades. Isolated Footing Types of Shallow Foundation 2. Combined Footing If two to three columns connected collectively with one single footing is called Combined Footing. It provides where the distance between the two columns is small. The shape of combined footing is in a rectangular or trapezoidal. It is the formation of two isolated footings, together. Types of Shallow Foundation Types of Foundation 2.Deep Foundation Pile foundation Pier foundation Drilled Shafts or caissons Mat / Raft Foundation(Case Speciﬁc) Types of Deep Foundation 1. Piles: A pile is a deep foundation element that is made of steel, concrete, or timber. It is installed deep into the ground to increase the bearing capacity of the soil and transfer the load of a structure to deeper and stronger soil layers or rock. According to function 1. Bearing pile They are driven till hard Strata or layer of Rock beds. The load is transmitted by columns to the hard layer of soil 2.Friction pile These piles are used where the soil is soft at a considerable depth. The load is transferred to the soft soil due to the friction produced between the soft soil which is in contact with these piles. Types of Deep Foundation - Pile Types of Deep Foundation - Pile According to material 1.Concrete pile 2.Wooden pile or Timber pile 3.Steel pile 4.Composite pile Types of Deep Foundation - Pile Wooden Pile Steel Pile Concrete Pile Composite Pile Types of Deep Foundation A pier is a deep foundation element that is made of steel, concrete, or timber. It is installed deep into the ground to increase the bearing capacity of the soil and transfer the load of a structure to deeper and stronger soil layers or rock Types of Deep Foundation - Pier 1. Masonry or concrete pier This type of footing is chosen when the depth of the hard strata is at 5 meters or less than 5 meter. Also, this type of footing is done when not much heavy load is coming from the superstructure. Types of Deep Foundation 3. Drilled Caissons They are mainly in a cylindrical shape so they are also known as cylindrical foundations. Distribution for drilled caissons is generally carried out by drilling process. Types of Foundation Mat or Raft Foundation: It is used where the bearing capacity of the soil is very low, base required in structure, vertical load on the column are high, and columns are closed to each other. It covers the entire area of the structure to support heavy column and wall loads. If the area of foundation exceeds the total area of the building, we have to provide Mat or Raft Foundation with Pile Foundation to make the structure stable. 1) what are the importance of foundation?. 2)Types of foundation 3) Do you seen any type of failure in foundation 4)which type of foundation you will suggest for critical condition Day 1 - Session 3 Tanks Tanks Tank is the generally used to store the water depends upon the requirements for the living organisms RCC water tanks are constructed for storing water. The tanks can be made of reinforced concrete or even of steel. The overhead tanks (elevated tanks) are usually elevated from the rooftop through column. On the other hand the underground tanks are rested on the foundation. Tanks 1. Underground tanks : This type of tank used for storing water initially before lifting it up. This water tank used for ﬁre safety requirements. 2. Overhead tanks : Overhead Water Tanks can be used in various applications can serve both Domestic purposes and Commercial Purposes. Constantly maintains the ﬂow in all the general bathroom usages and other water requiring appliances through gravitational force. 3. Tank resting on grounds : A ground water storage tanks (or surface tanks) are used for ground storage of potable drinking water, wastewater, treated water, rainwater collection, etc. And it is designed as crack free structures to eliminate any leakage. Types of Water Tank 1. Raw water tank 2. Fire water tank 3. Drinking water tank 4. STP/ETP 5. Overhead Water tank Types of Water Tank Based on materials 1. Steel Tanks 2. Fibre Glass Tanks 3. Polyethylene or PVC Tanks 4. Precast Tanks 5. RCC Tanks Tanks Advantages of RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) Water Tank It is structurally safe than brick Very large water tank can be made Life of RCC tank is more than any other materials It’s corrosion free so don’t affect the quality of water Very less maintenance required than other Easy to build as materials are easily available, economical Underground Tanks Underground tanks are used in construction for a variety of purposes, including storing water, sewage, petroleum and chemicals. These tanks are usually made from materials such as concrete, plastic, ﬁbreglass or steel and are designed to be watertight and structurally sound. Underground Tanks Before construction of an underground tank begins, the soil must be tested to make sure it can support the weight of the tank and any contents. It is also important to consider the location of the tank in relation to any potential hazards or sources of contamination. Overhead Tanks Overhead Water Storage Tank is a usual Water storage tank as its name stands for itself these tanks are placed over the head that is built on a certain height. The tank may be built of any material but the idea is to achieve maximum efﬁciency by placing a tank in some elevated distance. Overhead Tanks Ground water Tanks RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) ground water tanks are water storage systems that are built on-site, aboveground and made of reinforced cement concrete. These tanks are commonly used for storing potable drinking water, rainwater harvesting, irrigation water, and water for ﬁre protection.. Excavation Photos Excavation is the process of moving earth, rock, or other materials with tools, equipment, or explosives. It includes earthwork, trenching, wall shafts, tunneling, and underground. Excavation has a number of important applications including exploration, environmental restoration, mining, and construction. Construction joints Construction joints are joints that are formed between two sections of concrete that have been poured at different times. This is done to ensure that the two sections are properly connected and there are no gaps between them. Construction joints Construction joints are typically created by cutting a groove in the ﬁrst layer of concrete and then pouring a second layer of concrete into the groove. This creates a strong and durable connection between the two sections of concrete, providing a strong and secure foundation for the structure. Cold joints Cold joints occur when the ﬁrst layer of concrete sets up before the next layer is placed. This prevents the two layers from intermixing and opens the concrete up to honeycombing and water seepage. The formation of a concrete cold joint creates a weak bond between two concrete pours. The weakness of the joint depends on how late we pour the new concrete. Cold joints Tie Rod Hole A tie-rod hole is a hole left in a concrete structure after removal of the tie rods used in the concrete formwork. After construction, these holes are typically patched using hydraulic cement or another acceptable material. Tie Rod Hole Shoe Joint A shoe joint is a type of construction joint in concrete slabs. It is used to join two sections of concrete together to form a continuous surface. The joint is formed by cutting a shallow groove in the edge of one slab, and then casting a protrusion, or "shoe", on the edge of the other slab. Piling Piling is deﬁned as being foundations that are driven or bored through the ground along a certain length of area to carry and transfer loads to soil considered to be weak in structure due to the soil conditions. Essentially this means that piles are generally used when the bearing capacity of the soil is considered to be inadequate for the structural load of heavy construction. The piles transfer the load to the solid ground located at a depth. Piling Pile cap Basically, a pile cap is a thick concrete mat This mat can be found on concrete or timber piles and those piles are driven into the unstable ground, or soft ground, to create a stable foundation. The concrete pile cap will then distribute the entire load of the building. A pile cap is a thick concrete mat that rests on concrete or timber piles that have been driven into soft or unstable ground to provide a suitable stable foundation Pile head A pile head is an enlarged concrete section constructed over the top of a pile which helps spread the supporting force that the pile exerts on the structure it is holding. 1) Any doubts about importance of substructure in building?. 2) Factors to be considered in substructure construction 3) Difference between substructure and Ground level Day 2 - Session 1 Super Structure Podium Podium is the slab which divides substructure and superstructure in building The podium structure is a building structure that is typically used in larger commercial buildings or multi-story public buildings. It consists of a podium or base that supports the main building structure, typically one or two stories in height. Podium The podium is used as a structural base to support the building, as well as to provide additional space for public access in the form of entrances, lobbies, retail or other services. Podiums are typically constructed of reinforced concrete and are designed to provide a solid, stable foundation for the main building structure. Landscape A landscape is part of Earth's surface that can be viewed at one time from one place. It consists of the geographic features that mark, or are characteristic of a particular area. Landscape is an outdoor space, such as a garden, park, or countryside, that is designed, planned, and maintained for aesthetic and/or functional purposes. Softscape Softscape is the living (animate) part of landscaping comprising of plants, horticulture elements. Plants, Trees, Flowers, Turf, covering grounds and shrubs are all components of softscape landscaping designs. Softscape Softscape, although not as technical, helps bring color and life to your yard. Softscaping can either be temporary such as seasonal plants to add color as well as permanent such as evergreen trees and shrubs. Hardscape Hardscape landscaping basically are hard and solid design elements that are more permanent. Some of the hardscaping serves purely for the purpose of creating a well-deﬁned area for planting or softscaping. Hardscaping elements adds dimension, functionality and enhance the visual appeal for the outdoor areas. Hardscape Loads applied to the hardscape surface are transmitted to the supporting structure, creating structural deﬂection leading to stresses in the concrete surface Roof / Terrace A roof is the uppermost part of a building whose main function is to enclose the space and to protect the same from the effects of weather elements such as rain, wind, sun, heat and snow. Roofs have been constructed in a wide variety of forms—ﬂat, pitched, vaulted, domed, or in combinations Cast in situ roof In situ roof is a kind of rooﬁng system in which the entire roof is built on site from the ground up. The roof is typically created with prefabricated materials such as steel, aluminum, concrete, and other materials. One of the beneﬁts of in situ rooﬁng is that it can be constructed to ﬁt any size and shape of a building, making it a great option for custom-built structures. Precast roof A precast roof is a prefabricated roof system that is manufactured off site and then transported and installed at the construction site. This type of roof system consists of solid concrete panels that are cast into speciﬁc shapes and sizes in a controlled environment. Precast roofs offer several advantages to traditional rooﬁng systems, such as speed of installation, uniformity of the ﬁnished product, and environmental sustainability. Composite deck slab A composite deck slab is a type of concrete slab that consists of a concrete deck poured over a layer of steel reinforcement. It is typically used for elevated decks and balconies that are exposed to extreme weather conditions. Composite deck slab The steel reinforcement in the slab provides extra strength and stability, while the concrete deck provides protection from the elements. Composite deck slabs can be used in both residential and commercial applications. They offer a variety of beneﬁts, such as reduced maintenance costs and a longer lifespan compared to traditional wood decking. Roof Gardening A roof garden is essentially a garden on the rooftop of a building, man-made green spaces on the topmost level of residential and commercial structures. Consisting of different plants, these verdant areas help improve a building's aesthetics. These gardens provide a variety of beneﬁts to the building and its occupants, including reduced energy costs, improved air quality, and a pleasant outdoor environment. Roof Gardening Roof gardens can also be used to grow food, provide habitat for wildlife, and absorb rainwater. Wet area Wet areas are usually the spaces where sanitary ﬁxtures are at or spaces that are exposed or subjected to high moisture, rain, or water. Mainly includes laundries (washing area of a house), backyard, roof, balcony, windows, bathroom, or even kitchen. Toilet area A toilet is a small room used for privately accessing the sanitation ﬁxture (toilet) for urination and defecation. Toilet rooms often include a sink (basin) with soap/hand wash for handwashing, as this is important for personal hygiene. Shower area A shower area is a section of a bathroom that is speciﬁcally intended for showering. It typically includes a shower stall, a showerhead, a drain, and possibly a bath mat or rug. Balcony A balcony is an outdoor space, typically roofed, that is enclosed by walls or railings and is usually situated on the outer wall of a building. It is often used for leisure activities such as dining and relaxing, or as a decorative feature. Utility areas The utility area is a space in a home or other building that is used to house necessary equipment and services such as laundry facilities, heating and cooling systems, water heaters, and other appliances. Sun shade A sun shade is an architectural feature of a building that reduces heat gain by reﬂecting sunlight. They are typically installed on the exterior of buildings to reduce the amount of solar radiation that enters the building, helping to reduce cooling costs. Swimming pool A swimming pool is a large body of water, typically artiﬁcially constructed, used for recreational swimming, diving, or other water activities. Types of swimming pool Overhanging pool A overhang pool is a type of pool design that is supported on one side and suspended over the edge of a deck or terrace. it gives the appearance of being suspended in mid-air. The pool is usually constructed using reinforced concrete or steel and is designed to be strong enough to withstand the weight of the water and the people swimming in it. Types of swimming pool Earthen swimming pool Earthen swimming pools, also known as natural swimming pools, are a type of swimming pool that uses natural materials such as soil, gravel, and rocks, rather than chemicals, to ﬁlter and purify the water. They are designed to mimic the natural ecosystems of ponds and streams, and are becoming increasingly popular as an alternative to traditional swimming pools. Types of swimming pool Ground level pool In ground swimming pools are permanent structures that are installed into the ground. They are typically constructed of concrete, with a variety of ﬁnishes, such as plaster, tile, or pebble. Although they can be more expensive to install than above ground pools, they offer a variety of beneﬁts such as increased stability, a more attractive appearance, and a longer life. External Walls External walls are the outermost walls in a building that are exposed to the outside environment. They are typically constructed from brick, concrete, stone, metal, or other materials that provide a strong and durable barrier from the elements, such as wind, rain, and extreme temperatures. Types of external walls include load-bearing walls, cavity walls, and insulated external walls. External Walls Walls may be also divided into two types: a Load-bearing walls which support loads from ﬂoors and roof in addition to their own weight Then walls which resist side pressure from wind and, in some cases, from stored material or objects within the building, b non-load-bearing walls which carry no ﬂoor or roof loads. Internal Walls Internal walls can be constructed of different materials such as timber frame, metal frame or masonry. When constructing a new internal wall it should be supported by something strong enough underneath, whether the wall is load bearing or not. Ceilings The ceiling gains a deﬁnition, " A part of a building which encloses and is exposed overhead in a room, protected shaft or circulation space." It helps us to create an enclosure and separation between spaces. They provide perfect lighting in the room by controlling diffusion of light. Ceilings It also controls the sound around a room by making the room soundproof. It, therefore, stops the passage of sound between the rooms. Now ceiling also possesses ﬁre resistant properties that would facilitate accommodation of building services such as vents, lighting, sprinkler heads etc. Floors Floors may be stone, wood, bamboo, metal or any other material that can support the expected load. The levels of a building are often referred to as ﬂoors, although a more proper term is storey. Floors typically consist of a subﬂoor for support and a ﬂoor covering used to give a good walking surface. In modern buildings the subﬂoor often has electrical wiring, plumbing, and other services built in. Floors Special ﬂoor structures are used for a number of purposes: ○ Balcony, a platform projecting from a wall ○ Floating ﬂoor, normally for noise or vibration reduction ○ Glass ﬂoor, as in glass bottomed elevators ○ Nightingale ﬂoor makes a noise when an intruder walks on it ○ Raised ﬂoor, utilities underneath can be accessed easily ○ Sprung ﬂoor, improves the performance and safety of athletes and dancers Other Special Elements or Components 1. Roof 2. Parapet 3. Lintels 4. Beams 5. Columns 6. Damp proof course (DPC) 7. Walls 8. Floor 9. Stairs 10. Plinth Beam 11. Foundation 12. Plinth Parapet A parapet wall is a low or dwarf wall built along the edge of the roof, terrace, walkway, balcony etc. Parapet walls can be constructed using different materials like reinforced cement concrete, steel, aluminium, glass etc. Parapet Uses of parapet To provide an aesthetic look to the structure. To provide safety for humans when they are on the rooftop and in case of bridges to prevent vehicles from falling off bridge. To hide and prevent the equipment and machinery on the rooftop. To prevent the entrance of dust through the air on the rooftop Lintels Lintels are constructed above the wall openings like doors, windows, etc. These structures support the weight of the wall coming over the opening Normally, lintels are constructed by reinforced cement concrete In residential buildings, lintels can be either constructed from concrete or from bricks. Beams and Slabs Beams and slabs form the horizontal members in a building. For a single storey building, the top slab forms the roof. In case of a multi-storey building, the beam transfers the load coming from the ﬂoor above the slab which is in turn transferred to the columns. Beams and slabs are constructed by reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C). Inverted Beams Inverted beams refer only to the disperse of the concentrated load of the beam on the slab area. Inverted beams are usually inserted into the slab at a substantial point where the slab is ﬂat. Inverted beams are beams that are turned upside down and built into a structure in order to provide additional strength and stability. Inverted beams are commonly used in the construction of bridges, retaining walls, and other structures that require increased strength. Upstand An upstand beam is the one in which its structural top level is raised upwards relative to the structural top level of adjoining slab. In many situations, this type of beams may serve dual purpose of load bearing beam and architectural parapet Upstand beams are usually used on top ﬂoors, in order to give the architectural sense of ﬂat slabs as well as to create an upstand roof perimeter wall, for insulation and ﬁnishes. Columns Columns are vertical members constructed above the ground level. Columns can be of two types: Architectural columns and structural columns. ○ Architectural columns are constructed to improve the building's aesthetics ○ structural column takes the load coming from the slab above and transfers safely to the foundation. Damp Proof Course (DPC) DPC is a layer of waterprooﬁng material applied on the basement level to prevent the rise of surface water into the walls. The walls are constructed over the DPC. Damp Proof Course (DPC) - Application Stair Case A stair is a sequence of steps that connects different ﬂoors in a building structure. The space occupied by a stair is called as the stairway There are different types of stairs like a wooden stair, R.C.C stair etc. Plinth & Plinth Beam Plinth Beam Plinth beam is a beam structure constructed either at or above the ground level to take up the load of the wall coming over it. Plinth The plinth is constructed above the ground level. It is a cement-mortar layer lying between the substructure and the superstructure. Core cutting RCC Core Cutting is about making precise, circular cuts for creating holes of required diameters for various civil works. The core drilling rod is ﬁtted with diamond pieces at the drilling end. The core cutting machine can be used for both horizontal and vertical hole making purposes. Expansion joints A concrete expansion joint – or control joint – is a gap which allows the concrete to expand and contract as/when the temperature changes. It forms a break between the concrete and other parts of a structure to allow movement without causing stress, which can lead to cracking. Expansion joints are commonly used in buildings and other structures to accommodate movement due to thermal expansion and contraction, seismic activity, and other environmental factors. Vertical expansion joints Vertical expansion joints are used to provide a ﬂexible connection between two adjacent vertical surfaces, such as a wall and a ﬂoor. These joints are typically made from elastomeric material and are designed to absorb the vertical movement of the two surfaces, preventing cracking and damage to the structure. Horizontal expansion joints Horizontal expansion joints are designed to absorb horizontal movement and reduce vibration in structures. They are typically found between sections of bridge decks, retaining walls, columns, and buildings. The joints consist of two structural members that are connected by a ﬂexible material, such as rubber or neoprene which allows the two structural members to move relative to each other in the direction of the joint’s width. Inclined expansion joints Inclined expansion joints are used when the expansion and contraction of a structure is not linear. They are used to bridge the gap between sections of the structure that would otherwise be unable to move independently due to their different angles. Inclined expansion joints are typically constructed of metal and rubber and feature bellows or other ﬂexible components. Basement expansion joints Basement expansion joints are typically installed along the walls that connect the basement ﬂoor to the foundation walls. These joints are ﬁlled with a ﬂexible material, such as asphalt-impregnated ﬁberboard, and are designed to absorb any movement caused by settling or expansion. Expansion joints are necessary to prevent cracks from forming in the basement walls and ﬂoors, which can cause major damage to the structure of the home. Retaining Wall expansion joints Retaining wall expansion joints are used to absorb the pressure placed on a wall when it is subjected to lateral forces due to movement of the soil behind it or adjacent to it The expansion joints are typically ﬁlled with a ﬂexible material, such as foam or rubber, that allows the wall to expand and contract without damage. Podium to Tower expansion joints The most common type of joint used for a podium to tower expansion is a bolted steel moment joint. This type of joint allows for the connection between the podium and tower to be made securely and safely. It also allows for the movement of the tower relative to the podium due to wind or other forces. Additionally, the joint is designed to accommodate any misalignments between the two structures. Concealed /controlled expansion joints Concealed or control expansion joints are designed to allow for movement between two building materials due to thermal expansion, seismic activity, and other factors. These joints are constructed in a way that they are not visible to the public and do not disrupt the aesthetics of the building. The joint is typically made of a ﬂexible material such as rubber or plastic, and is installed in the wall or ceiling to provide a seal while allowing for movement. Construction joints Construction joints are joints that are placed in concrete construction to divide a slab into sections. These joints are used to separate sections of concrete that will be poured at different times, and to separate sections with different concrete strengths or properties. Construction joints also help to control cracking in the concrete due to shrinkage and temperature changes. Cold joints Cold joints occur when the ﬁrst layer of concrete sets up before the next layer is placed. This prevents the two layers from intermixing and opens the concrete up to honeycombing and water seepage. Refuge Area A refuge area in a building is a designated safe space designed to provide shelter and protection in the event of an emergency. This could include ﬁres, chemical spills, hazardous weather, or other dangerous situations. Refuge areas are usually located in buildings on each ﬂoor, near exit stairs and/or elevators, and may be marked with signs Ofﬁce 188/32/1, 2nd Floor, Bashyam Circle, 13th Cross Road, Sadashivnagar, Bengaluru, Karnataka -560080 Registered Ofﬁce No 10 Ferns Paradise, Doddanekkundi, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560037 8861434168 www.siwinonline.com [email protected]

Basics of Civil Engineering PDF

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