BALLB Unit 1 Sem 1 (History) PDF

BALLB UNIT 1 SEM 1 (BAL-114) WHAT IS HISTORY? The English word “History” have originated from the Greek word “historia”, meaning “inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation”. The term “History” is however taken from the German word “Geschichle”, which means a si...

BALLB UNIT 1 SEM 1 (BAL-114) WHAT IS HISTORY? The English word “History” have originated from the Greek word “historia”, meaning “inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation”. The term “History” is however taken from the German word “Geschichle”, which means a significant narration of the past events. Generally, history refers the study of the past and it covers every aspects of civilization. The scholars who write about history are known as Historians. The development of history writing started with the ancient Greek historians like Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus, who is popularly known as “the father of History” was the first historian to collect and systematically process information in the form of an account. Different historians have provided different definitions of history, some of the popular ones are as follows: Edward Hallett Carr: “History is an unending dialogue between the present and the past and the chief function of historian is to master and understand the past as a key to the understanding of present.” Prof. Carl G. Gustavson: “History is a mountain top of human knowledge from whence the doings of our own generation may be scanned and fitted into proper dimensions. History enables a person to see himself as part of that living process of human growth which has emerged out of the past and will inexorably project itself out beyond our own life time. We are the product of the past but not the complete product.” Will Durant: “History is a narrative of what civilized men have thought or done in past time.” Prof. A.L. Rowse: “History is essentially the record of the life of men in societies in their geographical and their physical environments. Their social and cultural environment arises from the interaction of the one with the other, the society and its geographical condition.” Prof. G.R. Elton: “History is concerned with all those human sayings, thoughts, deeds and sufferings which occurred in the past and have left present deposit; and it deals with them from the point of view of happening change and particular.” John Jacob Anderson: "History is a narration of the events which have happened among mankind, including an account of the rise and fall of nations, as well as of other great changes which have affected the political and social condition of the human race." Thomas Charlyle: “World History is a biography of great men”. Lord Acton: “History is the unfolding story of human freedom.” Henry Johnson: “History, in its broadest sense, is everything that ever happened.” R. G. Collingwood: “Every historian would agree, I think, that history is a kind of research or inquiry. What kind of inquiry it is I do not yet ask? The point is that generically it belongs to what we call the sciences: that is, the forms of thought whereby we ask questions and try to answer them. Science in general, it is important to realize, does not consist in collecting what we already know and arranging it in this or that kind of pattern. It consists in fastening upon something we do not know, and trying to discover it. Playing patience with things we already know may be a useful means towards this end, but it is not the end itself. It is at best only the means. It is scientifically valuable only in so far as the new arrangement gives us the answer to a question we have already decided to ask. That is why all science begins from the knowledge of our own ignorance: not our ignorance of everything, but our ignorance of some definite thing-the origin of parliament, the cause of cancer, the chemical composition of the sun, the way to make a pump work without muscular exertion on the part of a man or a horse or some other docile animal. Science is finding things out: and in that sense history is a science.” From the above definitions one can easily assume the importance of History in the human civilization. Social, political, economic, cultural, intellectual, scientific, religious and a various other spheres are all a part of history. NATURE OF HISTORY Previously, history was considered as just the record of the events that occurred in the past. However, in the present times, the subject is studied with a much more critical approach and in a very scientific manner. A historian is required to evaluate and analyse the events in an unbiased manner. Personal opinions and ideas should never be incorporated into historical facts. In fact, many times while writing history, a historian may not stay impartial and thus his works get influenced by his biasness. As a historian, analyse the past in the backdrop of his own social, religious, economic and cultural background, hence there is a chance of the historian to develop a biased opinion. Historian studies the past in the light of present, therefore, the developments of present times can affect the analysis of the past. Hence, it is essential for a historian to be free from any kind of biases. 1. Dynamic: History deals with man’s evolution through time. History is not static but dynamic in nature. It traces how humans have advanced through the ages. 2. Study of the present in the backdrop of the past: The present is a result of the past. Therefore, history helps us to realize how society has come to its existing form. 3. Chronological: History deals with a series of events which occurred at a particular point of time. Each event is recorded in the backdrop of the time in which it took place. 4. Objective by Nature: An ideal account of history should be as much objective as possible. Provision should be taken to prepare the data on authentic sources and make them free from bias interpretation. This helps in a clear understanding of the past 5. Multi-dimensional: Every aspect of human civilization should be studied under history. History should not be limited to political history or the history of the rulers, that have dominated history for a long time. 8. Proper Analysis: The selected events should not be simply narrated but a proper analysis is required. However, the analysis should be unbiased and free from any kind of influences. Truth and truth alone is required to turn a piece of writing into a historical record. 9. Significant: History records only those events which are significant in nature. Irrelevant and insignificant happenings of the daily life do not form a part of history. 10. Consistent and Continuous: History portrays the evolution of human development through ages, hence history is one of the most consistent and continuous process, that have witnessed the journey of civilization. Some of the popular quotes regarding the nature of history writing are as follows: "A historian has many duties. Allow me to remind you of two which are important. The first is not to slander; the second is not to bore." - French historian, Voltaire. "History to be above evasion must stand on documents not on opinion." - English historian, Lord Acton. "Historians have a responsibility to make some sense of the past and not just to repeat it." - British military historian, Michael Eliot Howard "Each age writes the history of the past with reference to the conditions uppermost in its own time." - American historian, Frederick Jackson Turner "The writing of history reflects the interests, predilections, and even prejudices of a given generation." - American historian, John Hope Franklin "Faithfulness to the truth of history involves far more than a research, however patient and scrupulous, into special facts. Such facts may be detailed with the most minute exactness, and yet the narrative, taken as a whole, may be unmeaning or untrue. The narrator must seek to imbue himself with the life and spirit of the time. He must study events in their bearings near and remote; in the character, habits, and manners of those who took part in them. He must himself be, as it were, a sharer or a spectator of the action he describes." - American historian, Francis Parkman. "The study of history is the best medicine for a sick mind; for in history you have a record of the infinite variety of human experience plainly set out for all to see; and in that record you can find yourself and your country both examples and warnings; fine things to take as models, base things rotten through and through, to avoid." – Roman historian Livy. "Those historians should give their own country a break, I grant you; but not so as to state things contrary to fact. For there are plenty of mistakes made by writers out of ignorance, and which any man finds it difficult to avoid. But if we knowingly write what is false, whether for the sake of our country or our friends or just to be pleasant, what difference is there between us and hack writers? Readers should be very attentive to and critical of historians, and they in turn should be constantly on their guard." - Greek Polybius. "Everything must be recaptured and relocated in the general framework of history, so that despite the difficulties, the fundamental paradoxes and contradictions, we may respect the unity of history which is also the unity of life." – French historian Fernand Braudel " Any fool can make history, but it takes a genius to write it." - Irish poet, Oscar Wilde. "The historian should be fearless and incorruptible; a man of independence, loving frankness and truth; one who, as the poets says, calls a fig a fig and a spade a spade. He should yield to neither hatred nor affection, not should be unsparing and unpitying. He should be neither shy nor deprecating, but an impartial judge, giving each side all it deserves but no more. He should know in his writing no country and no city; he should bow to no authority and acknowledge no king. He should never consider what this or that man will think, but should state the facts as they really occurred." - Novelist and rhetorician Lucian. SCOPE OF HISTORY The scope a subject refers to the extent of the particular subject. In case of history, the scope is enormous and diverse. It covers every important event that have ever happened. Political, social, cultural, religious, economic, scientific or technological events, all come under the range and scope of history. B. Sheikh Ali writes, “with the passage of time the scope of history has been widened and new areas are included in it. History is gradually assuming all the three dimensions, as its main job is to narrate what happened, to discuss how it happened and to analyse, why it happened. It is growing in its extent as well.” The scope of history is also very dynamic in nature, just like the subject itself. The world in the past was fragmented into a number of social, political and cultural units. Each of these unit considered itself superior to another. For example, countries like Greek, Rome, China and India all have their independent histories in the ancient times. After the industrial revolution, there was an improved means of transportation and communication across the different countries of the world, which bridge the gap between the various countries and a feeling of togetherness developed among people all over the world. This led to the rise on a unified and integrated culture. Thus, history gradually started assuming a universal nature. However, even today these divisions are existing which led to the debate on the historiography of the cold war. Still in general, history today deals with a much border perspective that cannot be limited to the mere geographical boundaries of the states. With the rise of technology, the scope of history also got widened. After the discovery of technologies like radio carbon dating, the scope of history could be pushed back by millions of years. In the mid nineteenth century, the knowledge of the ancient history was further broadened by archaeology and geology. Until 19th century, history was limited to the study of political events However, at present the social, cultural, religious, economic, medical technological and literary aspect got incorporated into the scope of history along with the political ones. SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORY Normally, people are more interested in living the present and not in the dead past. However, there could be no proper understanding of the present without an appropriate knowledge of the past. In fact, most of the present problems have their roots in past. We could not reach to any proper solutions of these problems unless we understand how those problems originated and developed. Further, we cannot properly know our own capabilities until we read about the journey of human civilization in the past. In the words of historian R.G. Collinwood, “history is for human self-knowledge. It is generally thought to be of importance to man that he should know himself: where knowing himself means knowing not his merely personal peculiarities, the things that distinguish him from other men, but his nature as man. Knowing yourself means knowing, first, what it is to be a man; secondly, knowing what it is to be the kind of man you are; and thirdly, knowing what it is to be the man you are and nobody else is. Knowing yourself means knowing what you can do; and since nobody knows what he can do until he tries, the only clue to what man can do is what man has done. The value of history, then, is that it teaches us what man has done and thus what man is.” Hence, the significance of learning history are as follows: 1. History helps in developing our own sense of identity To know who you are, firstly you need to cultivate a sense of identity. This refers to learning where you fit into the story of your nation or your position in the global community in a broader sense. History tells us how our nation, political institution, society and culture came to be in its existing state. It tells us from where our ancestors have come from and who we really are. Most important of all, it gives us the capability to recognize the legacies we may have inherited from our ancestors. Pearl Buck said, “If you want to understand today, you have to search yesterday.” 2. History helps in developing a better knowledge of the world. We can’t build a framework our life without knowing how things actually work in this world. History provides us a clear picture of how government, society, human minds and technology worked in the past, so that we can have a better understanding of how it works now. It also helps in determining how to prepare for the future, as it provides us the opportunity to learn from the past mistakes and achievements in the similar fields. Edmund Burke said, "In history, a great volume is unrolled for our instruction, drawing the materials of future wisdom from the past errors and infirmities of mankind." 3. History provides an understanding of other people History is also a valuable resource when it comes to understanding people who are strangers to us. It develops our understanding of other cultures and communities, thereby helping in the formation of multi- cultural communities. Abraham Lincoln said, "Human nature will not change. In any future great national trial, compared with the men of this, we shall have as weak and as strong, as silly and as wise, as bad and as good. Let us therefore study the incidents in this as philosophy to learn wisdom from and none of them as wrongs to be avenged." 4. History helps in understanding the nature of Change. Change can be a very difficult concept to understand. Every one of us have a different experience in our life. These experiences are shaped by our societal norms, cultural background, economic status, personal experiences, and many other things. History helps in better understanding of when, what, how and why changes occurs. 5. History makes us a better citizens of the nation. A Good citizen is the one, who is always well-informed regarding the nation. Without a working knowledge of history, no one can consider himself to be an informed citizen. By developing our understanding of the nation, history helps us in becoming a responsible and more effective citizen of the country. 6. History helps us to be a better decision maker. History provide us the opportunity to learn from the past mistakes. It further helps in understanding the human mind, i.e. the reasons why people behave the way they do. Philosopher George Santayana said, “Those who cannot remember the past, are condemned to repeat it.” 7. History helps us to be appreciative History helps us to appreciate the present as well as the past. When we learn about the movements and revolts against injustices in the past, we automatically develop a sense of appreciation for the ones who have fought against those evils. At the same time, it makes us realise at what cost we have gained the present that we are living it. Thereby helping us to appreciate ve the present without taking it for granted. History and Law: Law is considered as one of the most imperative and strong pillar of civil society. Law not only enlightens about the basic rights of human beings but also use to centralise its focus on the basic duties of individuals. The concept and model of Law is furthermore propounded and also been described in the spiritual & holy books of different religions. With the emergence of social and cultural transformation the shape of law has changing rapidly. In the ancient period and medieval systems King is considered to be the main adjudicator (Judge) of various judgements the final verdict is to be given in the name of the king. With the rise of British in India they have changed the judicial system? and the courts came into existence, the law has taken the form of statutes, bills, and acts and after independence when the Constitution of India came into force and was drafted by B.R Ambedkar who was the chairman of the drafting committee, after that the law itself has got its significance and it is still available in the codified form. It is generally said and broadly accepted by several experts and jurists that social science is considered to be the main architect of law. Law is such a topic which is extensively interrelated to many subjects, whether is it commerce, science, life sciences and humanities and in case of Humanities which are also called social sciences is the prime base & source of law. The legal system operates according to its own nature but the character and personality of law is immortalised by the proper functioning and interrelation of social sciences in the study of law.History is the study of the past which gives an idea about the present; there is a close interrelation of law with history. History provides us with the exact design about law, what is law, why law is made and for what law is. History gives us the vital background in relation to the life history of human beings from the stone age till the present modern era. In short history and law can't be separated just because, history is the most essential guiding factor in the study of law and legal systems because it traces the basic fundamentals of humanity and by the deep knowledge and understanding of history one can surely connects with the elements of law and the foremost example for the relation of law with history is clearly analysed by the "Historical School of Jurisprudence" which says that law is found not made and also illustrate the foundation and central origin of law and secondly there is legal history which is related to the historical civilization of society and tells us about the brief practices which are way back executed in the society. SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIANHISTORY In order to study the life of Indian people in the past, we have to rely on differentsources of Indian history. The numerous sources available are generally classified intoLiterary, Archaeological and Foreign Accounts. A study of these reveal much of the past; but much more remains yet to be unveiled. LITERARY SOURCES Literary sources include the sacred and secular literature. Sacred literature is not precisely historical in content. It provides glimpse of religious, intellectual, culturaland social spheres of activity of people. The Vedic literature includes all the four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aryankas andUpanishads. The four Vedas are - Rigveda, which is a collection of 1,028hymns. It is the only indigenous source for reconstructing the history of RigVedic Aryans. Secondly, Yajurveda, which deals with the details of the performance of rituals. Thirdly, Samaveda, which consists of 1,810 verses. It prescribes the tune for the recitation of the hymns of  Rig Veda. Fourthly,Atharvaveda, which is the latest Veda and consists of hymns. It also spells andcharms which reflect aspects of popular beliefs and practices. However, itdoes not have any trace of political history. The Ramayana and Mahabharata, the two great epics of the Vedic period,gives an idea of the times and culture of the later Vedic period. The epics aremagnificent texts with powerful stories and excellent examples of Indianliterature in verse. Valmiki wrote the Ramayana between 5th/4th century BCEand the 3rd century CE in Sanskrit language. The epic has 24,000 slokas. Inaddition, the epic is significant for its fluidisation of social ideas of ancientIndian society. The Mahabharata was written between c. 400 BCE - c. 400 CE by Ved Vyas. Political thought of ancient India can be understood basedon this epic. The epic has 1,00,000 slokas. It consists of 18 Parvahs (books). The Puranas, eighteen in number, are mainly historical accounts. It is acollection of legends with religious teachings, which are written in Sanskrit. Itthrows ample light on the history of Mauryas. List of the Mauryan kings areincluded in it. The Dharmasutras and the Smritis are rules and regulations for the publicand the rulers. The Dharamshastras or the law-books prescribe the duties for different social groups. They set out punishments for persons guilty of theft,murder, adultery, etc. The earliest law book is Manu Smriti. It was the first book translated by the British and formed the basis of Hindu code of law.They are the main source of knowledge regarding Brahmanical institutions. These shastras reveal the working of the caste system in a rigid form. Thesewere compiled between 600 B.C. and 200 B.C. The four Varnas included in Dharam shastras are – Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Manu smritiis prominent among them. The contribution of Buddhist Literature to the source of ancient Indian history is of immense importance. Tripitakas helps in drawing a picture of social, economic, and political life in the age of Buddha. These works arewritten in Pali language. It consists of three - Sutta Pitaka is a source of immense value to know about sermons and religious ideas of Buddha; VinayaPitaka describes the code of conduct followed by the followers of Buddhism;and Abhidhamma Pitaka throws light on philosophical ideas of Buddhism.The most important non-religious Buddhist literature is the Jatakas. Theycontain the stories of the previous birth of the Buddha. These stories throwinvaluable light on the social and economic conditions of the period betweenthe fifth and second centuries B.C. Jain literature is of immense value for the reconstruction of ancient history of India. The Jaina texts were written in Prakrit and were eventually compiled insixth century AD at Vallabhi in Gujarat. They are called Angas and containthe philosophical concepts of the Jainas. The most priceless work in Jainliterature is `Parisistha Parvana`, written by Hema Chandra. The importantJain works are - twelve-Angas, Kalpasutra, Bhagavati Sutra, Marutunga,Parisistaparvan, Uttaradhayayana, Andhara-Magadhi, Sthaviravali, etc. bear important historical data on Jain religion and culture and on importantmonarchs like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Mahapadma Nanda, ChandraguptaMaurya, etc. Kautilya’s Arthasastra reveals most authentic information on all basicaspects of the structure of the Mauryan empire such as economy,administration including an elaborate system of espionage, art of diplomacyand military strategy and tactics under Chandragupta Maurya.  The Sangam literature, the earliest South Indian literature, of the Tamils infar South, written in Kavya (poem) style are the most representative of thesecular literature of the South during the early Christian era. It describes manykings and dynasties of South India. It consists of long and short poems whichwere composed by a large number of poets in praise of their kings. Sangamliterature is our major source for the study of south Indian society, economyand polity during 300 B.C. – 300 A.D ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES Archaeology – the study of human past through material remains – is closelyconnected with history. Material remains range from vestiges of grand palaces andtemples to the small, discarded products of everyday human activity such as pieces of broken pottery. The dates of remains found in excavations are fixed by variousmethods. The most important of them is the Radiocarbon or Carbon 14 (C14) datingmethod. It decays, like all radioactive substances, at a uniform rate when the object is dead. The finds of prehistoric artifacts has shown that human activities have startedhere about 2 mya. Excavations have brought to light the tools of early humans in Indiagoing as back as seven lakh years The civilization represented by Harappa in West Punjab and Mohenjodaro inSindh are known as the Indus valley civilization. The excavated sites belonging to the Harappan period show the layout of the settlements and theform of the houses in which people lived, the type of pottery, tools andimplements they used and the kind of food they consumed. The Great Bath, inMohenjodaro, is the most important public place and must have served as aritual-bathing site in 2500 B.C The period between 1500 and 600 B.C. was known as the dark period of Indian history because not much was known about this period. Thearchaeological discoveries of such cultures as Black-and-Red Ware, PaintedGrey Ware, Malwa and Jorwe cultures since 1950s have not only filled thechronological gaps but also the geographical extent. Stupas built on mounds,where the holy relics of Buddha or objects used by him are buried, have become important pilgrimage sites. Archaeological excavations also broughtto light the townships of Taxila, Kausambi, Kasi (Rajghat), Ayodhya, Vaisali,Bodhgaya, etc. belonging to Buddha's time. Inscriptions are permanent writings engraved on hard surface such as stone, metal or terracotta. Inscriptions are the most important source for the reconstruction of the political, social, and economic history of ancient India.Inscriptions have been used as a major source of information on political structuresand administrative and revenue system. They often reflect what people are actuallydoing. They reflect the history of languages and literature. Their script enables us todetermine the approximate age of the inscription. They throw light on the history of settlement patterns, agrarian relations, forms of labour, and class and caste structures.They provide dateable information on the history of religious sects, institutions, and practices. They are also a rich source of information on historical geography. They,thus throw light on the history of iconography, art and architecture.The earliest records have been found from Harappa, but the script has not beendeciphered. James Princep deciphered Ashokan inscription in 1837, which waswritten in Pali and Prakrit language. Ashokan inscriptions form the most importantsource of the Mauryan period. They are important for providing the knowledge aboutthe extension of his empire, his religious policy, administration and his character. However, there are some limitations of inscriptional evidence. Sometimes, letters arevery faintly engraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain. In addition, inscriptionsmay be damaged or letters missing. Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about theexact meaning of the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be specific to a particular place or time. COINS The earliest coins found in India contained certain symbols, which were known as punch-marked coins and were made of silver and copper (c. 6th century BC onwards).The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks,who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent (c. 2nd centuryBC). The first gold coins called Dinaras were issued by the Kushanas in c. firstcentury AD and their wide distribution indicates the flourishing trade of the period.Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. Their earliest issues are remarkable for their purity of gold content. Kaniska’s coins depictsBuddha’s figure.Coins provide useful information regarding economic history as they were used as amedium of exchange. Some coins were issued by guilds or associations of themerchants and artisans with the permission of the rulers which shows the influence of craft and commerce. Coins also portray kings and gods, and contain religioussymbols, all to which throw light on the art and religion of the time. Roman coinsfound in various parts of India provide information on the Indo-Roman trade. Coinsoffer information on ancient political system and on the Parthians, Shakas, Kushanas,and Satvahanas.However, with the downfall of the Gupta Empire, coins play a much lesser role as asource of ancient Indian history. The coins of Harshavardhana, the Chalukyas, theRashtrakutas, the Pratiharas and the Palas are rarely available and contain meagrehistorical information. History, according to E. H. Carr, is a never-ending conversation between the present and the past in which the historian interacts with his data. Furthermore, Prof. Renier emphasized the social importance of history, defining history as "societal memory." As a result, history is the account of previous events that have shaped humanity's fate. History, according to Geoffrey Barraclough, is "an endeavour to uncover the major things of the past based on fragmented data." As a result of the preceding, history is concerned not only with the past but also with key aspects of man's evolution. As stated in the definition of history, the story of a people or society shall not be forgotten by posterity, history adds to man's knowledge of man, history aids in the protection and preservation of a nation's traditional and cultural values, and most importantly, history aids in grasping relationships with the past. Professor Ademola-Ajayi, on the other hand, believes that history's importance resides in the fact that its knowledge aids and directs in current conditions, not via prophecies but by plausible forecasts. It is important to note that, History is the study of numerous aspects of human existence, and it is closely related to other social sciences that examine particular aspects of human existence. While historians adhere to the topic of the discussion in historical writing, they also accept ideas and methodologies from other areas for analyzing, organizing, and interpreting events. Archaeology, Economics, Political Science, Sociology, Geography, Anthropology, Linguistics, Psychology, and Palaeontology will all have an impact. HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY Archaeology forms a major source of historical research in the reconstruction and interpretation of past events and forms part of primary sources of data. Archaeology is the study of the material remains of peoples themselves, dwellings i.e. caves, a fortification used for protection etc. In a broader sense, archaeology is the scientific study of the remnants of the past, such as - The ancient site, relics, monuments, coins, inscriptions and other artefacts which help in reconstructing history in a most plausible manner. Archaeology aids in the investigation of prehistoric studies. The goal of this field is to recreate the behavioural patterns and material culture of the people whose skeletons are being excavated. Archaeology's major contribution to historical study or writing is that it has aided historians in tracing the origins and developmental phases of man, particularly in separating man from other primates such as gorillas, orang-utans, and so on. From the finding of Dryopithecus to Ramapithecus to Australopithecus robustus and Africanus (discovered in Olduvai GorgeLae tooli, Koobifora, and other producers of the OLDOWAN stone) to Homo-Erectus to Homo- Erectus to Homo-Erectus to Homo-Erectus to Homo-Erectus to Homo-Erectus to Homo-Erectus. Aerial photography, reconnaissance survey, and geophysical survey are some of the techniques used by archaeologists to identify the location of sites. Another advantage of combining history and archaeology is that it provides a solid historical framework into which object evidence can be fitted and compared. The intervention of archaeology in the attempt to get close actual dates of occurrence through the science of Radio-Carbon dating cannot be overlooked, even if these dates are indefinite, they have been essential in determining years of historical reconstruction (e.g. the use of ± 200 AD) History is more focused on the economic, social, and political elements of man, whereas archaeology is more interested in the economic and social aspects. Unlike historical research, which is focused on oral and written tradition, archaeological research is based on scientific observation. Archaeology has shown to be the most effective discipline in determining the various phases of humankind when interacting with history (Stone Age, Iron age and Neolithic age). However, in accolades to this field, it has helped Historians reconstruct the History of the Benin People, Igbo Ukwu and other ancient Histories which could have been lost. A major flaw of this source of historical writing is that information derived from it are often not uniform, this is because the information available is sometimes accidentally discovered either in the course of farming or in the course of digging, this, in turn, leads to generalisation and which doesn’t reflect the event that had taken place in restricted areas. HISTORY AND PSYCHOLOGY The scientific study of the mind and behaviour is known as psychology. Psychology, like history, is a multidimensional science with several subfields of study, including human development, sports, health, clinical, social behaviour, and cognitive process. Some elements look at the impact of culture and society, while others look at the function of evolution in historical research. Psychology is viewed as one facet of a social condition that may be described in historical terms. In analyzing man's and societies' motives and behaviours, psychology supports history. The importance of psychology in historical biography and autobiography is undeniable. The influence of psychology on history can be seen in the fact that in the past, historians focused on the origins of war and ignored the consequences of war; now, historians are studying the consequences and impacts of war, and can also help determine the role of the masses in such wars or revolutions, thanks to the influence of psychology. The effects of events such as war and natural disasters on the citizenry of a geographical place are best understood via psycho-analysis of the impacted and neighbouring communities' populations. HISTORY AND ETHICS History and ethics are inextricably linked. Although a real historian is not required to make unique and sensitive judgements on historical events and individuals, he must be aware of the ethical principles that impacted people's behaviour in the past. There was probably no accurate ethical science in the past, and most of what came after were only a reflection of the prejudices, partiality, and complexity of the many writers. Scholars such as Stephen, Duprat, and Dewey have attempted to develop an ethical theory based on biology, psychology, and sociology in recent years. There has developed a science of behaviour. To have a broader perspective on the topic, a historian must grasp and grasp this discipline of ethics. HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY History and geography are widely acknowledged to be inextricably linked. In reality, it would be almost impossible to study some fields of history without at least a fundamental understanding of geography; for example, diplomatic or military history cannot be studied without a basic understanding of the region's topography. One of history's eyes is geography, with the other being chronology. The accurate perspective on history is provided by time and spatial considerations. Prof. Michelet believed that history was fundamentally based on geography. “People, the makers of history, aspire to be wandering without a geographical basis,” he continues. “Geography stands at the foundation of history,” remarked German philosopher Kant. “History is geography in motion,” Herder stated. Others, such as American geographer Ells Worth Huntington and Allen Semple, have emphasized the role of environment in shaping the path of history as well as race temperament. Many geographical variables helped the growth of the river in the valley, including climate, society, rivers, mountains, sea, shoreline, and mineral resources. Early Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Indian, and Chinese cultures. “Egypt is the gift of the Nile,” writes Herodotus, an early Greek historian. The impact of climate on man has been underlined by Aristotle and Montesquieu. The physical development of countries with broken coasts, such as Britain, Japan, and Greece, had a significant influence on their history. This helped them strengthen their naval forces and expand their empire. Similarly, the Himalayas and Assam's forests have served as barriers against incursions from India's north and east. The Himalayas, as well as the Gobi and Mangolian deserts, are to blame for China's isolation. Since the Renaissance, the nature of World History has been dictated by geographical discoveries in America and a new path to India. Geography also has a significant impact on the creation of national character and human behaviour. As we all know, a country's climate has a significant impact on its civilization. As a result, historians must have a strong understanding of geography. Accepting the restricted interpretation of geographical effect on man's behaviour or history would be prudent. Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC. It flourished between 2600 BC and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around 1400 BC. This is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan). Pre-Harappan civilization has been found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan, showing the first evidence of cotton cultivation. Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. Indus Valley Civilization Important Sites In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab). In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on the Indus River in Sindh), Chanhudaro (in Sindh). The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the discovery of seals by J Fleet. Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats. Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay and Marshall. The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations. Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and the lower town. Most cities had a Great Bath.  There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines, excellent stormwater, and wastewater management system, weights for measurements, toys, pots, etc. A large number of seals have been discovered. Agriculture was the most important occupation. The first civilization to cultivate cotton. Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats, and pigs. Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas. Trade was conducted with the Sumerians. Metal products were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin, and lead. Gold and silver were also known. Iron was not known to them. No structures like temples or palaces have been found. The people worshipped male and female deities. A seal which was named ‘Pashupati Seal’ has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed figure. Marshall believed this to be an early form of Lord Shiva. Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated. Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and vessels. Civilization also was advanced in making artworks. A statuette named ‘Dancing Girl’ has been found from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be 4000 years old. A figure of a bearded Priest-King has also been found from Mohenjodaro. Lothal was a dockyard. Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H Symmetry culture, bodies were cremated in urns. The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered. Sources to the Indus Valley Civilization 1. The ruins of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa display a wonderful knowledge of urban planning, drainage, the Great Bath, the Assembly Hall, and several other structures. The Great Bath, which had galleries and apartments as well as a quadrangle in the centre, is one of them. 2. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro each had its own citadel which was occupied by the members of the Ruling Class. The citadel is the evidence that the Indus valley civilization was an urban civilization. 3. There were more than 2000 seals that were discovered during the civilization from various sites. The importance of Seals addresses the religious beliefs and physical features of the people.  4. People of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were great craftsmen as the origin of the civilization has seen figures such as the bronze figure of a dancing girl, terracotta figure of Mother Goddess and the stone statue of a Bearded Man. 5. The discovery of a dockyard, surrounded by a massive brick wall at Lothal in Gujarat suggests that the people practised navigation on the coast of Arabian Sea. 6. The Harappans invented writing like the people of ancient Mesopotamia but the Harappan script has not been deciphered so far. 7. Objects of Sumerian origin found at the Indus cities revealed that there were trade relations between India and Mesopotamia. Town Planning and Structures ▪ The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning. ▪ Harappa and Mohenjodaro each had its own citadel or acropolis, which was possibly occupied by members of the ruling class. ▪ Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the common people. ▪ The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed the grid system. ▪ Granaries constituted an important part of the Harappan cities. ▪ The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable, because in the contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used. ▪ The drainage system of Mohenjodaro was very impressive. ▪ In almost all cities every big or small house had its own courtyard and bathroom. ▪ In Kalibangan many houses had their wells. ▪ At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls. Agriculture ▪ The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient foodgrains. ▪ Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard were produced. Millets are also found from sites in Gujarat. While rice uses were relatively rare. ▪ The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.  ▪ While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices. ▪ Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for ploughing. ▪ Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. ▪ Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sindh. ▪ Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were also reared on a large scale. ▪ Evidence of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from a doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal. In any case the Harappan culture was not horse centred. Economy ▪ The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by the presence of numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area. ▪ The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc. ▪ Metal money was not used and trade was carried by barter system. ▪ They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea. ▪ They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently facilitated trade with Central Asia. ▪ They also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates. ▪ The Harappans carried on long distance trade in lapis lazuli; which may have contributed to the social prestige of the ruling class. Crafts ▪ The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of Bronze. ▪ Copper was obtained from the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan and Tin was possibly brought from Afghanistan. ▪ Textile impressions have also been found on several objects. ▪ Huge brick structure suggest that brick-laying was an important craft. This also attests the existence of a class of masons. ▪ The Harappans practised boat-making, bead making and seal-making. Terracotta manufacture was also an important craft. ▪ The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones.  ▪ The potter's wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was glossy and shining. Institutions ▪ Very few written materials have been discovered in the Indus valley and the scholars have not been able to decipher the Indus script so far. ▪ As a result, there is difficulty in understanding the nature of the state and institutions of the Indus Valley Civilization. ▪ No temples have been found at any Harappan sites. Therefore the possibility of priests ruling Harappa can be eliminated. ▪ Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants. ▪ If we look for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power, archaeological records provide no immediate answers. o Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal status. o Another theory argues that there was no single ruler, but a number of rulers representing each of the urban centers. Religion ▪ In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one figurine a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman. o The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her in the same manner as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis. ▪ The male deity is represented on a seal with three horned heads, represented in the sitting posture of a yogi. o This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo below his throne. At his feet appear two deer.The depicted god is identified as Pushupati Mahadeva. ▪ Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been found. ▪ The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and Animals. ▪ The most important of them is the one horned unicorn which may be identified with the rhinoceros and the next important was the humped bull.  ▪ Amulets have also been found in large numbers. Religious Aspects of the Civilization o The unicorn is the most prominent religious figure in Indus Valley Civilization. o Unicorn figures had different names like Pashupati/Proto-Shiva, Seven Mothers (Sapta- Matrika) & Compound Creatures. o These figurines are now largely inculcated into the Hindu religion. o The dominance of the terracotta mother goddess indicates that the IVC society was mainly matriarchal. o Evidence that Harappans looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her similarly as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile Goddess ‘Isis’. o Proto-Shiva or Pashupati Figurine appears to be the only male deity as depicted on the IVC Seals. o Pashupati Figurine is surrounded by 4 wild animals, viz., elephant, tiger, buffalo & rhinoceros. o The Pashupati figurine wears a number of bangles, has a headdress and there’s also an inscription of seven letters on the top. o IVC inhabitants also believed in the worship of stones in the form of linga (phallus) and yoni (fertility) à Evident in a terracotta figurine found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan). o IVC people also practised yoga for both physical exercises as well as performing religious rites. o The presence of Sacred Ritual Spot is evident from the excavation of the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro, wherein, all the elites undertook religious baths. o Also, tree worship is evident as the peepal tree has been depicted on many IVC seals. o Evidence of snake worship & snake charmers is also there. o Amulets have also been found in large numbers. o No evidence of temples or a sophisticated caste system has been found in Indus Valley Civilization. Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization This civilization declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated. Various Theories  1. Aryan Invasion Theory: According to this, the Aryan invasion of the Harappan territory led to the destruction of the IVC. 2. Epidemic Theory: According to this, an uncontrollable epidemic must have spread in the IVC cities which led to its destruction. 3. Natural Disasters Theory: According to this, a large-scale earthquake, flood or drought would have hit the IVC cities, which led to the destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization. 4. Less Rainfall leading to Draughts: Less rainfall due to the changing climatic conditions would have led to draughts in the IVC cities due to which IVC declined 5. Change in the course of the river: Change in course of the Ghaggar-Hakra river led to increased aridity and subsequent destruction in the Indus Valley Civilization cities. 6. Though, India and the world marvel at the wonder of the Indus Valley Civilization, yet this culture also could not defeat the law of nature and thus slowly declined due to a combination of manmade and natural factors which ultimately led to the rise of Early Vedic Tradition in India. VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION IN ANCIENT INDIA India's administrative system has evolved over time, with various administration systems in place at various times. Excavations have led scholars to the conclusion that the Indian valley civilization of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa had a systematic government, which was obviously very important in an age when communication was slow and industrialization was unknown. This is the earliest reference to the Indian valley civilization.In the ancient Indian world, towns played a minor role; When describing the prosperity of the kingdom Jatakas, they proudly include a large number of prosperous villages, but they are oblivious to the existence of town and cities that may have flourished there. The Vedic hymns frequently pray for the prosperity of the villages, but they rarely pray for the prosperity of the towns and cities.As has been demonstrated, the Vedic era was characterized by low social status and an increase in the importance of the village as a result. In later times, when the kingdom grew in size, nothing changed; instead, the village became the natural center of administration in rural society.In the literature of the Vedas, the village headman, or gramani, was usually in charge of the village government. The crucial role that the village headman played in the village's management is documented in both the Jatakas and the Arthasastra. The Vedic period came after valley equalization in Indian history.During the Rig Vedic era, administration units were referred to as "Kul," "Gram," and "Vish." Gram, or a village, was made up of the hours hold.The family was the smallest unit in the Rig Vedic political system.The family's oldest member assumed the role of head.Several families made up the village."Gramini," who also served as the village's administrative head, was its head.Gathering of town was known as the 'Vish' and its head was 'Vishpati' Nemerous 'Vishas' comprised a 'Jan' who key official was known as 'Gopa' this was a significant office and helpfully the ruler himself became 'Gopa'.The administration's primary component was the village. Villagers were, without a doubt, the real centers of social life and important economic units in the nation. The supported the structure of public culture, property and organization.Decentralization was common in ancient administration due to the importance of village units.In order to ensure that the administration functioned effectively, the empire was divided into provinces, districts, and rural and urban centers by districts. VILLAGE COUNCIL: During the "Gupta" period, at least in that region of India, the village councils appear to have become regular entities.In Contrail India, they were referred to as Graayanapadas in Bihar and as Panchayats or Grampanchayats. At Nalanda, a large number of the various village councils (Janapadan) have been found to have sealed the letters they sent to the Nalanda university administrator.It appears almost certain that the village council in Bihar had evolved into formal bodies, meeting on a regular basis to conduct administrative business and communicating their decisions to outsiders through formal and sealed communications. The Pallave and vakataka kingdoms had elders in the village known as Mahattaras. However, it is unknown whether they established a regular council.However, inscriptions from Gujarat and the Deccan show that village elders used to appoint their own formal executive communities as early as 600 AD. These communities were called Mahattaradhikarns, which could mean village elder in office or power. Rajputaha likewise shown where the leader of the town gathering was known as 'Panchkula', it work under the direction of headman known as Mahanta.It was a significant body. The Village Headman: The headman of the village typically oversaw and guided the operations of the village government.In the Vedic literature and the jataka, he is referred to as "Gramini."The Arthshashtra of Kautilyas attests to his significant contribution to the administration of almost all of the provinces during the first millennium of the Christian era, when his name appears in the inscriptions of those provinces.In northern India, he was referred to as "Grameyaka" or "Gramika."He was typically not a Brahmin by caste.He probably belonged to the kshitriya since he was in charge of the village militia. The most powerful official in the village administration was the head man.His request was addressed as the board of downpour is in the Vedic time frame.The village headman's most important responsibility was to protect the community;He was the officer who was in charge of the ward and its militia. He was most compelling individual in the villate. '“He was like the father and the mother of the villagers is substantially true,” Shukraniti claimed.Even though he was accountable to the central government, he was primarily a man of the people who worked to safeguard their interests. The two usual members of the village government were the headman of the village and the accounts. According to Jatakas, neither the village headman is responsible for the village. According to their sweet will, the accountant ruled over the village community.They both serve as guidance to the administration in order to present a more in-depth picture of the constituency and function of the village assemblies in Tamil nadu villages and their executive committees. Village Administration The administration of the village played a crucial role in maintaining order and carrying out magistracy and judicial responsibilities.In this regard, it was an independent unit, and the village panchayat served as its instrument.Five subcommittees of the Sabha were in charge of running the village.All members served as honorary members and held office for a single year.However, they could be removed earlier.The village's experienced and qualified residents were believed to have the opportunity to serve on the various subcommittees if they were found guilty of misconduct. Those whose character was questionable or who had been found guilty of misappropriating public funds were excluded from membership, as were their close relatives.Even in the case of the "Agrahara" village, it should not be assumed that these guidelines regarding the qualifications of members were rigid and universal. Village Sabha and Sub-committee The village sabha gradually grew out of popular gatherings in the past, when social, religious, and political issues were discussed separately because there was little distinction made at the time.In some cases, 35 was the minimum age required to become a member.After three years, some members were eligible to be re-elected, while others were eligible after five or even ten years.The requirements of the situation and the location also affected the number of duties assigned to the subcommittees.Typically, the archileef of its own constitution was each sabha.The "Mahasabha," the earliest known constitution, was created by the body itself at a special meeting of villagers who were persuaded by the beat of drums.When constitutional amendments were required, they were typically considered and approved by the "Sabha." Members of various subcommittees were chosen by drawing lots.Each village's thirty words were the subject of multiple nominations, with each nominee's name appearing on its own ticket. The large orchards and garden were overseen by the first subcommittee, while the village tank and water distribution were overseen by the second.The crucial role of settling disputes was performed by the third.The gold committee was the name given to the fourth committee;Its function was to impartially declare gold for everyone.Naturally, members of this committee were experts in the art.The "Panchwara" committee was the name of the fifth subcommittee;It is unclear what it does.A general committee of supervision, the Annual Committee, existed in addition to their five committees. Only elders who had previously served on other committees and had experience were eligible for membership in the body.Naturally, the number of subcommittees and their responsibilities varied according to the requirements and circumstances of each village, and the land survey's function must have been to survey and clasiy lands and ensure that the government's assessment was equitable.In another, a temple committee is mentioned.There were colleges in some agrahara villages;The probably had a committee for education.In Bihar, Rajputana, Contral India, Maharashtra, and Karnataka, village assemblies had established a regular council during the Gupta era and after.In the south of India, during the Chola era at least, they used to raise a public loan by Moral aging the common lands in the event of climates like famines. Previously, the village council was in charge of organizing several public works.In order to boost the village's wealth, efforts were made to cultivate waste and forest land.The records of rights and transfers to village land, as well as documents pertaining to village lands and revenue, had to be kept by the village office. Village Administration in Ancient India The village was run by the village headman.The village headman was in charge of the administration of the village.He is otherwise called gramani.In northern India he was called garmika in northern India and mununda in the eastern India, pattakila in Maharashtra, gavunda in Karnataka and mahattaka or Karnataka.Each village had only one headman.His position was inherited.In the event that the son's succession was not approved, the government could nominate another family member.He typically belonged to a caste other than Brahmin.He may have frequently belonged to the Kshatriya caste and led the village's armed forces.In the Vedic era, Headman's order was represented on the council of ratnins, and he looks like a village king.The village headman's most important responsibility was to protect the community. In ancient times, life was more volatile, and the Central Government's assistance could not be expected at a crucial time because of slow communications.The villagers were required to be independent. The village headman also had an important job: getting money from the government.He was in charge of keeping the necessary records.He collaborated with the village council to complete the collection work.In addition, the headman served as the village council's ex-officio president.He received compensation in the form of free land and a number of small intangible payments that the villagers were required to make to the government. He was the village's most powerful individual.He was eager to safeguard the public's interests. The records of village land rights and transfers, as well as documents pertaining to the realization of government dues, were kept by the village office.They needed to arrange with the locale specialists and focal government and the choices and goals of the town chamber must be recorded appropriately. The village accountant was given charge of this task.His position was also inherited.There is abundant evidence to suggest that they included everyone who lived in the village.Important issues were resolved at village assemblies. According to jatakas, the public's opinion influenced the village headman and accountant in their administration.According to the jatakas, villages conducted business independently.They do not demonstrate themselves to any standing or regular council.