History of Astronomy PDF

# History of Astronomy ## Arny, Chapter 1 ### Introduction * Western astronomy divides into 4 periods * Prehistoric (before 500 B.C.) * Cyclical motions of Sun, Moon and stars observed. * Keeping time and determining directions develops. * Classical (500 B.C. to A.D. 1400)...

# History of Astronomy ## Arny, Chapter 1 ### Introduction * Western astronomy divides into 4 periods * Prehistoric (before 500 B.C.) * Cyclical motions of Sun, Moon and stars observed. * Keeping time and determining directions develops. * Classical (500 B.C. to A.D. 1400) * Measurements of the heavens. * Geometry and models to explain motions. * Renaissance (1400 to 1650) * Accumulation of data lead to better models. * Technology (the telescope) enters picture. * Modern (1650 to present) * Physical laws and mathematical techniques. * Technological advances accelerate. ## Prehistoric Astronomy ### Introduction * People of antiquity most likely began studying the heavens many thousands of years ago. * Early astronomical observations certainly revealed the obvious: * Rising of the Sun in the eastern sky and its setting in the west. * Changing appearance of the Moon. * Eclipses. * Planets as a distinct class of objects different from the stars. * Many astronomical phenomena are cyclic on a day-to-day and year-to-year basis. This gave prehistoric people: * Methods for time keeping. * Ability to predict and plan future events. * Incentive to build monumental structures such as Stonehenge. * Modern civilization no longer relies on direct astronomical observations for time keeping and planning. * Studying the night sky provides a link to the past. ### The Celestial Sphere * Vast distances to stars prevents sensing their true 3-D arrangement. * Naked eye observations treat all stars at the same distance, on a giant celestial sphere with the Earth at its center. ### Models and Science * The celestial sphere is a model that does not necessarily match physical reality. * Models provide a means to enhance our understanding of nature. ### Constellations * **Constellations** are fixed arrangements of stars that resemble animals, objects, and mythological figures. * Stars in a constellation are not physically related. * Positions of stars change very slowly; constellations will look the same for thousands of years. * The origin of the ancient constellations is unknown although they probably served as mnemonic devices for tracking the seasons and navigation. ### Motion of the Sun and the Stars * **Daily or Diurnal Motion** * Sun, Moon, planets, and stars rise in the east and set in the west. * Daily motion can be explained by the rotation of the celestial sphere about the north and south celestial poles located directly above the Earth’s north and south poles. * The celestial poles can act as navigation aides and astronomical reference points. * The **celestial equator** lies directly above the Earth's equator and provides another astronomical reference marker. * **Annual Motion** * For a given time (say 10:00 PM), as the months proceed, constellations do not appear in the same part of the sky. * A given star rises 3 minutes 56 seconds earlier each night. * This annual motion is caused by the Earth's motion around the Sun, the result of projection. * The ancients used the periodic annual motion to mark the seasons. * **The Ecliptic** * The path of the Sun through the stars on the celestial sphere is called the **ecliptic**. * The ecliptic is a projection of the Earth's orbit onto the celestial sphere and is tipped relative to the celestial equator ### The Seasons * The Earth is closest to the Sun in January, which is winter in the northern hemisphere. * Therefore, the seasons cannot be caused by the Sun’s proximity to the Earth. * The Earth’s **rotation axis** is tilted 23.5º from a line perpendicular to the Earth’s orbital plane. * The rotation axis of the Earth maintains nearly exactly the same tilt and direction from year to year. * The northern and southern hemispheres alternate receiving the majority of direct light from the Sun (on a yearly cycle). * This leads to the seasons. * **The Ecliptic's Tilt** * The tilt of the Earth's rotation axis causes the ecliptic not to be aligned with the celestial equator. * The Sun is above the celestial equator in June when the Northern Hemisphere is tipped toward the Sun, and is below the equator in December when tipped away. * This tilting explains the seasonal **altitude** of the Sun at noon, highest in summer and lowest in winter. * **Solstices and Equinoxes** * Points on the horizon where the Sun rises and sets change periodically throughout the year. * In the summer months of the Northern hemisphere, the Sun rises north of east and sets north of west. * In the winter months of the Northern hemisphere, the Sun rises south of east and sets south of west. * The **solstices** (about June 21 and December 21) are when the Sun rises at its most extreme north and south points. * The **equinoxes** (equal day and night and about March 21 and September 23) are when the Sun rises directly east. * Ancients marked the position of the Sun rising and setting to determine the seasons (e.g., Stonehenge). ### Planets and the Zodiac * The planets (Greek for "wanderers") do not follow the same cyclic behavior of the stars. * The planets move relative to the stars in a very narrow band centered about the ecliptic and called the **zodiac**. * The motion and location of the planets in the sky is a combination of all of the planets' orbits being nearly in the same plane and their relative speeds about the Sun. * The apparent motion of planets is usually from west to east relative to the stars, although on a daily basis, the planets always rise in the east. * Occasionally, a planet will move from east to west relative to the stars; this is called **retrograde motion**. * Explaining retrograde motion was one of the main reasons astronomers ultimately rejected the idea of the Earth being located at the center of the solar system. ### The Moon * Rises in the east and sets in the west. * Like the planets and Sun, the Moon moves from west to east relative to the stars (roughly the width of the Moon in one hour). * During a period of about 30 days, the Moon goes through a complete set of **phases**: new, waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full, waning gibbous, third quarter, waning crescent. * The phase cycle is the origin of the month (derived from the word moon) as a time period. * The phases of the Moon are caused by the relative positions of the Sun, Earth, and Moon. * The Moon rises roughly 50 minutes later each day. ### Eclipses * An eclipse occurs when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are directly in line with each other. * A **solar eclipse** occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, with the Moon casting its shadow on the Earth causing the mid-day sky to become dark as night for a few minutes. * A **lunar eclipse** occurs when the Earth passes between the Sun and Moon, with the Earth casting its shadow on the Moon giving it to become dull red or disappear for over one hour. * Eclipses do not occur every 30 days because the Moon's orbit is tipped relative to the Earth's orbit. * The tipped orbit allows the shadow of the Earth (Moon) to miss the Moon (Earth). ### In summary, the basis of prehistoric astronomy includes: * Rising and setting of the Sun, Moon, and stars. * **Constellations**. * **Annual motion of the Sun**. * Motion of planets through the **zodiac**. * **Phases of the Moon**. * **Eclipses**. ## Early Ideas of the Heavens ### Ancient Greek Astronomers * Through the use of models and observations, the ancient Greeks were the first to use a careful, systematic approach to explain the workings of the heavens. * Limited to naked-eye observations, their idea of using logic and mathematics as tools for investigating nature is still with us today. * Their investigative methodology is as important as the discoveries themselves. ### The Shape of the Earth * Pythagoras taught as early as 500 B.C. that the Earth was round, based on the belief that the sphere is the perfect shape used by the gods. * By 300 B.C., Aristotle presented naked-eye observations for the Earth's spherical shape: * Shape of Earth’s shadow on the Moon during an eclipse. * A traveler moving south will see stars previously hidden by the southern horizon. ### The Size of the Earth * Eratosthenes (276-195 B.C.) made the first measurement of the Earth's size. * He obtained a value of 25,000 miles for the circumference, a value very close to today's value. * His method entailed measuring the shadow length of a stick set vertically in the ground in the town of Alexandria on the summer solstice at noon, converting the shadow length to an angle of solar light incidence, and using the distance to Syene, a town where no shadow is cast at noon on the summer solstice. ### Distance and Size of the Sun and Moon * The sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon relative to the Earth were determined by Aristarchus about 75 years before Eratosthenes measured the Earth’s size. * These relative sizes were based on the **angular** size of objects and a simple geometry formula relating the object's diameter, its angular size, and its distance. * Aristarchus, realizing the Sun was very large, proposed the Sun as center of the Solar System but the lack of **parallax** argued against such a model. * Once the actual size of the Earth was determined, the absolute sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon could be determined. ### The Motion of the Planets * Because of the general east to west motion of objects in the sky, **geocentric theories** were developed to explain the motions. * Eudoxus (400-347 B.C.) proposed a geocentric model in which each celestial object was mounted on its own revolving transparent sphere with its own separate tilt. * The faster an object moved in the sky, the smaller was its corresponding sphere. * His geocentric model could not explain retrograde motion without appealing to clumsy and unappealing contrivances. ### Ptolemy (about A.D. 150) * Ptolemy of Alexandria improved the geocentric model by assuming each planet moved on a small circle, which in turn had its center move on a much larger circle centered on the Earth. * The small circles were called **epicycles** and were incorporated so as to explain retrograde motion. * Ptolemy's model was able to predict planetary motion with fair precision. * Discrepancies remained and this led to the development of very complex Ptolemaic models up until about the 1500s. * Ultimately, all of the geocentric models collapsed under the weight of "Occam's razor" and the **heliocentric models** prevailed. ### Islamic Contributions * Relied on celestial phenomena to set its religious calendar. * Created a large vocabulary still evident today (e.g., zenith, Betelgeuse). * Developed algebra and Arabic numerals. ### Asian Contributions * Devised constellations based on Asian mythologies. * Kept detailed records of unusual celestial events (e.g., eclipses, comets, supernova, and sunspots). * Eclipse predictions. ## Astronomy in the Renaissance ### Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) * Could not reconcile centuries of data with Ptolemy's geocentric model. * Consequently, Copernicus reconsidered Aristarchus's heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the solar system. * **Heliocentric models** explain retrograde motion as a natural consequence of two planets (one being the Earth) passing each other. * Copernicus could also derive the relative distances of the planets from the Sun. * However, problems remained: * Could not predict planet positions any more accurately than the model of Ptolemy. * Could not explain the lack of parallax motion of stars. * Conflicted with Aristotelian "common sense". ### Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) * Designed and built instruments of far greater accuracy than any yet devised. * Made meticulous measurements of the planets. * Made observations (supernova and comet) that suggested that the heavens were both changeable and more complex than previously believed. * Proposed a compromise geocentric model. ### Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) * Upon Tycho’s death, his data passed to his young assistant Kepler. * Using the very precise Mars data, Kepler showed that the orbit of Mars was an ellipse. * **Kepler’s Three Laws:** 1. Planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. 2. The orbital speed of a planet varies so that a line joining the Sun and the planet will sweep out equal areas in equal time intervals. 3. The amount of time a planet takes to orbit the Sun is related to its orbit’s size, such that the period, P, squared is proportional to the semimajor axis, a, cubed: $P^2 = a^3$, where P is measured in years and a is measured in AU. * Consequences of Kepler’s laws: * Second law implies that the closer a planet is to the Sun, the faster it moves. * Third law implies that a planet with a larger average distance from the Sun, which is the semimajor axis distance, will take longer to circle the Sun. * Third law hints at the nature of the force holding the planets in orbit. * Third law can be used to determine the semimajor axis, a, if the period, P, is known, a measurement that is not difficult to make. ### Galileo (1564-1642) * Contemporary of Kepler. * First person to use the telescope to study the heavens and offer interpretations. * The Moon's surface has features similar to that of the Earth ⇒ The Moon is a ball of rock. * The Sun has spots ⇒ The Sun is not perfect, changes its appearance, and rotates. * Jupiter has four objects orbiting it ⇒ The objects are moons and they are not circling Earth. * Milky Way is populated by uncountable numbers of stars ⇒ Earth-centered universe is too simple. * Venus undergoes full phase cycle ⇒ Venus must circle Sun. * Credited with originating the experimental method for studying scientific problems. * Deduced the first correct "laws of motion." * Was brought before the Inquisition and put under house arrest for the remainder of his life. ## Isaac Newton & Birth of Astrophysics * Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was born the year Galileo died. * He made major advances in mathematics, physics, and astronomy. * He pioneered the modern studies of motion, optics, and gravity and discovered the mathematical methods of calculus . * It was not until the 20th century that Newton’s laws of motion and gravity were modified by the theories of relativity. ## The Growth of Astrophysics ### New Discoveries * In 1781, Sir William Herschel discovered Uranus; he also discovered that stars can have companions. * Irregularities in Uranus’s orbit together with the law of gravity leads to the discovery of Neptune. ### New Technologies * Improved optics lead to bigger telescopes and the discovery of nebulas and galaxies. * Photography allowed the detection of very faint objects. ### The Nature of Matter and Heat * The ancient Greeks introduced the idea of the atom (Greek for “uncuttable”), which today has been modified to include a nucleus and a surrounding cloud of electrons. * Heating (transfer of energy) and the motion of atoms was an important topic in the 1700s and 1800s. ### The Kelvin Temperature Scale * An object’s temperature is directly related to its energy content and to the speed of molecular motion. * As a body is cooled to zero Kelvin, molecular motion within it slows to a virtual halt and its energy approaches zero ⇒ no negative temperatures. * Fahrenheit and Celsius are two other temperature scales that are easily converted to Kelvin.