ASG2601 B0 LS05 Study Guide PDF

1 ASSESSMENT IN GRADE R – ASG2601 CONTENTS 1. PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES OF THE MODULE........................................ 6 2. LINK WITH OTHER MODULES.................................................................... 7 3. MODULE OUTCOMES.......................

1 ASSESSMENT IN GRADE R – ASG2601 CONTENTS 1. PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES OF THE MODULE........................................ 6 2. LINK WITH OTHER MODULES.................................................................... 7 3. MODULE OUTCOMES................................................................................. 7 4. OUTLINE OF THE MODULE........................................................................ 8 5. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF ACTIVITIESASSIGNMENTS?...................... 9 LEARNING UNIT 1.................................................................................................. 10 THE PURPOSES AND PROCESSES OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES IN ASSESSMENT........................................................................................................ 10 1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 10 1.2 Learning outcomes.......................................................................................................... 10 1.3 In the next sub-sections, the learning outcomes will be addressed.................. 10 1.3.1 What is assessment?...................................................................................................... 10 1.3.2 Characteristics of assessment in the foundation phase....................................... 13 1.3.3 Principles of quality assessment................................................................................. 14 1.3.4 The purpose of informal and formal assessment......................................................... 17 1.3.5 Assessment as a process.............................................................................................. 18 1.4 Conclusion......................................................................................................................... 21 1.5 Additional learning experience..................................................................................... 22 1.6 Reflection questions........................................................................................................ 22 LEARNING UNIT 2.................................................................................................. 23 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ASSESSMENT................................................................. 23 2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 23 2.2 Learning outcomes.......................................................................................................... 23 2.3 Types of assessment....................................................................................................... 23 2.3.1 Diagnostic assessment................................................................................................... 24 1  2 2.3.2 Summative assessment.................................................................................................. 24 2.4 The importance of formative assessment in Grade R............................................ 27 2.4.1 The difference between formative and summative assessment.......................... 30 2.5 Integrating productive pedagogies with productive assessment....................... 31 2.5.1 Intellectual quality............................................................................................................ 32 2.5.2 Connectedness................................................................................................................. 33 2.5.3 Supportive classroom environment............................................................................ 33 2.5.4 Valuing and working with difference........................................................................... 33 2.6 The role of assessment for learning in the foundation phase.............................. 34 2.6.1 Assessment collaborations........................................................................................... 35 2.7 Additional Resources...................................................................................................... 38 2.7.1 Articles................................................................................................................................ 38 2.7.2 Videos.................................................................................................................................. 38 2.8 Reflection questions........................................................................................................ 39 LEARNING UNIT 3.................................................................................................. 41 ASSESSMENT METHODS...................................................................................... 41 3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 41 3.2 Learning outcomes.......................................................................................................... 41 3.3 Assessment methods...................................................................................................... 42 3.3.1 Observation........................................................................................................................ 42 3.3.1.1 Descriptive records.......................................................................................................... 45 3.3.1.2 Ratings................................................................................................................................ 47 3.3.2 Oral questioning............................................................................................................... 48 3.3.2.1 Bloom’s taxonomy as a guide to designing quality questions............................ 49 3.3.2.2 Using Bloom’s taxonomy of learning to design good questions........................ 51 3.3.3 Self-assessment................................................................................................................ 53 3.3.4 Group assessment........................................................................................................... 54 3.3.5 Portfolio assessment....................................................................................................... 54 2  3 3.3.6 Involving parents as assessors.................................................................................... 56 3.4 Assessment tools............................................................................................................. 57 3.4.1 Rubrics................................................................................................................................ 59 3.5 Providing feedback.......................................................................................................... 59 3.6 Additional resources....................................................................................................... 60 3.6.1 Articles................................................................................................................................ 60 3.6.2 Videos.................................................................................................................................. 60 3.7 Reflection questions........................................................................................................ 61 4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 63 4.2 Learning outcomes.......................................................................................................... 63 4.3 Why is it important to learn about the theories of teaching, learning and assessment?...................................................................................................................... 63 4.4 Behaviourism..................................................................................................................... 64 4.4.1 Behaviourist theory’s implications on assessment................................................ 67 4.4.2 Critics of behaviourism................................................................................................... 69 4.5 Constructivism.................................................................................................................. 71 4.5.1 Vygotsky’s theory............................................................................................................. 73 4.5.2 The implications of constructivism on assessment............................................... 75 4.5.3 Critics of constructivism................................................................................................ 76 4.6 Summary............................................................................................................................. 78 4.7 Self- assessment questions........................................................................................... 79 4.8 Additional information.................................................................................................... 79 4.8.1 Articles................................................................................................................................ 79 4.8.2 Videos.................................................................................................................................. 80 LEARNING UNIT 5.................................................................................................. 81 IMPORTANT ASSESSMENT PROCESSES IN GRADE R..................................... 81 5.1 Purpose of the unit........................................................................................................... 81 5.2 Learning outcomes.......................................................................................................... 81 3  4 5.3 The role of a teacher in assessment........................................................................... 82 5.4 Recording learner performance.................................................................................... 84 5.4.1 Checklists........................................................................................................................... 84 5.4.2 Anecdotal records............................................................................................................ 87 5.4.3 Running records............................................................................................................... 89 5.4.4 Audio-visual recordings................................................................................................. 89 5.5 How to report learners’ performances................................................................................. 89 5.6 How to analyse and interpret results.......................................................................... 90 5.7 Providing feedback.......................................................................................................... 92 5.8 Self-assessment questions............................................................................................ 94 5.9 Additional sources........................................................................................................... 94 5.9.1 Articles................................................................................................................................ 94 5.9.2 Videos.................................................................................................................................. 94 5.10 REFERENCES................................................................................................. 95 4  5 Dear Student As part of this tutorial letter, we wish to inform you that Unisa has implemented a transformation charter based on five pillars and eight dimensions. In response to this charter, we have also placed curriculum transformation high on the agenda. For your information, curriculum transformation includes the following pillars: student-centred scholarship, the pedagogical renewal of teaching and assessment practices, the scholarship of teaching and learning, and the infusion of African epistemologies and philosophies. These pillars and their principles will be integrated at both the programme and module levels, as a phased-in approach. You will notice the implementation thereof in your modules, and we encourage you to fully embrace these changes during your studies at Unisa. WELCOME Welcome to Assessment in Grade R (ASG2601). This module has been compiled to equip you with understanding, knowledge, skills and varied techniques to assess the learners’ performances in the Foundation Phase of schooling. You are therefore advised to read the overview of this module so that you get an overall understanding of the contents of the module. We trust that you will find the module helpful, and that it inspires you to improve your reading proficiency, and that you will gain skills that will motivate you to strive for lifelong learning. Good luck with your studies! 5  6 1. PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES OF THE MODULE The purpose of this module is to equip you with basic knowledge, skills and techniques to assess the Foundation Phase learners. You will be empowered with skills to be able to record, interpret and report the results to all stakeholders (Department of Education, school management, teacher, parents) who have an interest the Grade R learner. You will be able to integrate different methods and forms of assessment relevant to enhancing the teaching and learning of Grade R. You will further understand how to plan and implement different types of assessment in diverse contexts to meet the individual needs of learners in Grade R. Online and print resources will be used to support learning. The following seven specific outcomes have been set for this module: Specific outcome 1: Interpret and analyse the process of “Assessment” and the purpose of formal and informal approaches to assessment. Specific outcome 2: Evaluate the different types of assessment and the purpose of each type of assessment within the Grade R context. Specific outcome 3: Apply knowledge of assessment in selecting appropriate methods and tools to gather relevant information. Specific outcome 4: Formulate an argument as to why observation is one of the most useful method of assessment used for Grade R learners. Specific outcome 5: Apply the knowledge of theories of assessment, to assess and interpret the assessment information to enhance teaching and learning. The module structure is guided by the above outcomes. The learning outcomes will guide you in your study of the contents of the module. After completing this module, you should be able to effectively assess learners’ performances in the Foundation Phase. 6  7 2. LINK WITH OTHER MODULES This module is closely linked to all Foundation Phase module as it provides the basic knowledge of concepts and general strategies of assessment. All the skills taught in this module will be applied and integrated to all modules in the Foundation Phase. 3. MODULE OUTCOMES After working through this module, you will be able to do the following: Specific outcome 1: Interpret and analyse the process of “Assessment” and the purpose of formal and informal approaches to assessment. Assessment criteria: ▪ The Assessment cycle will be interpreted, analysed and applied using the tools of reflective practice. ▪ Flow diagrams will be analysed and interpreted to demonstrate understanding of Assessment as a process. ▪ Case studies will be used to identify the processes involved in the gathering evidence of learning. Specific outcome 2 Evaluate the different types of assessment and the purpose of each type of assessment within the Grade R context. Assessment criteria ▪ Types of Assessment will be evaluated and the appropriate use will be interpreted ▪ Case studies will be used to identify different types of assessment and the purpose will of each type will be distinguished. ▪ Appropriate examples will be reflected upon and used to differentiate between the two types of assessment. Specific outcome 3 Apply knowledge of assessment in selecting appropriate methods and tools to gather relevant information. Assessment criteria ▪ Relevant curriculum related content statements will be analysed to identify the relevant learning outcome to be assessed (skills, knowledge, product and disposition outcomes). 7  8 ▪ Examples of assessment tools aligned to the learning outcomes will be developed. ▪ Scenarios / Case Studies will be used as a means to identify the appropriate methods and tools relevant to the activity. Specific outcome 4 Formulate an argument as to why observation is one of the most useful method of assessment used for Grade R learners. Assessment criteria ▪ Scenarios will be used to evaluate the role of the teacher in observing learners in assessment ▪ Recording of observations using anecdotal records, portfolios and observation books will be analysed. ▪ A variety of observation skills will be identified by analysing relevant examples or scenarios through the use of reflective practice. Specific outcome 5 Apply the knowledge of theories of assessment, to assess and interpret the assessment information to enhance teaching and learning. Assessment criteria ▪ Appropriate strategies will be developed to solve relevant problems related to Assessment ▪ Applicable learning theories (Vygotsky, behaviourist and constructivist ) are interpreted as a basis to understand how learning takes place ▪ Case studies will be used to analyse learning situations where students will identify learning gaps and plan appropriate intervention strategies. 4. OUTLINE OF THE MODULE This module consists of seven learning units, namely: Learning Unit 1 The purposes and processes of different approaches in assessment Learning Unit 2 Different types of assessment Learning Unit 3 Assessment methods Learning Unit 4 Understanding theories of assessment in teaching and learning 8  9 Learning Unit 5 Important assessment processes in Grade R 5. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF ACTIVITIES ASSIGNMENTS? Throughout the learning guide, you will come across different types of activities, think points, and self-test questions, some of which will: ▪ offer you practical experiences ▪ help you reflect on the concepts covered using a specific methodology or technique ▪ test your understanding of the concepts covered You are encouraged to work through the activities and the think points throughout the guide, as well as the self-test questions at the end of each unit in the guide, and regard them as building blocks towards the successful completion of this module. All the activities, think points, and self-test questions in the guide will help you to understand this module and prepare you for the formal assessments of this module. All the best! Lecturer’s contact details: Dr M Ngema E-mail: [email protected] 9  10 LEARNING UNIT 1 THE PURPOSES AND PROCESSES OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES IN ASSESSMENT 1.1 Introduction The aim and purpose of this learning unit is to enable you to understand the purposes of the different approaches of assessment. You will also be equipped with knowledge of how to interpret and analyse the processes of assessment. Please note that you are required to study all the content in this learning unit in order to complete the learning outcomes. 1.2 Learning outcomes After the completion of this learning unit you should be able to: define the concept of assessment differentiate between formal and informal assessment use tools of reflective practice to interpret, analyse and apply the assessment cycle demonstrate understanding of assessment process using flow diagrams use case studies to identify the processes involved in gathering evidence of learning 1.3 In the next sub-sections, the learning outcomes will be addressed 1.3.1 What is assessment? In our everyday life we come across different forms of assessment. To mention a few examples: when you want a drivers’ licence you have to go through an assessment to determine whether you are suitable to get one; when you want to open an account format a shop, they do assessment to establish whether you can afford to pay your account. The following activity will enable you to think about how you have been assessed in your everyday life in different contexts. 10  11 Activity 1.1 Take few minutes and think about the following: ▪ Think about the instances when you have undergone any kind of assessment in your everyday life and how the experience was. Did you pass that assessment? In half a page share your experience. ▪ Think of a time when you were assessed as a learner at school. What was the experience like? In half a page share your experience. Adapted from Maphalala (2016: 133) Feedback In your answer, we expected you to outline the emotions you had prior to, during, and after the assessment. This module deals with the assessment as an integral part of teaching and learning. Assessment is important at all levels of education. In the old system of education in South Africa, prior to democracy, assessment was mainly summative. This means that an assessment was done at the end of the year or term to make a decision about the learner’s progress. After the first democratic elections the new system of education was introduced: the Curriculum 2005 and outcomes based education (OBE) approach. It was critical to transform the assessment practice to ensure that the specific learning needs of all children are met in the post-apartheid schooling system (Kangee & Sayed 2013: 443). The new approach to assessing learners was introduced; the kind of assessment that encouraged integration of assessment with teaching and learning. Different authors have provided different definitions of assessment. Following are some of the definitions of classroom assessment: Assessment is a process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to assist teachers, parents and other stakeholders in making decisions about the progress of learners (Department of Education 2011: 3). Assessment is a process of getting information about learners’ performance, using clearly defined assessment criteria to determine what the learners know 11  12 or can do, and then using that information as evidence for making judgements regarding learners’ achievements (Maphalala: 2016: 128). Assessment is defined as the ongoing monitoring of the extent to which students are developing the knowledge, skills, beliefs and attitudes that are appropriate for graduates of the respective academic programmes (Holmes, Csapo & D’Aubere 2004: 503). Assessment is designed to discover what children know and understand, based on what they make, write, draw, say and do. Early childhood professionals assess the progress of children’s learning and development, what children are ready to learn, and how they can be supported. The above three definitions encapsulate many of the principles and concepts that are used to describe assessment in the South African education system. They indicate that assessment involves a number of processes and it is not a once off activity. Read the following activity and give your answer: Activity 1. 2 After reading the above three definitions, compare and identify the key concepts in each definition. According to the first definition, what is the purpose of assessing learners? Which definition tells us that assessment is not a once off process and quote the words that tell us that? Feedback The activity aims at enabling you to know the activities and processes that are involved in assessment. You were expected to think about the following in your response: Activities that are involved in assessing learners The purpose of conducting an assessment What is assessed When or how often an assessment takes place 12  13 1.3.2 Characteristics of assessment in the foundation phase Joan, Ellen, Yunyun, Cathy and Michael (2015: 361) maintain that if teachers spend more time engaged in assessment and analysing student work, they would gain insight on how learners’ knowledge develops, and the misconceptions and obstacles that may occur along the way. Assessment plays a crucial role in learners’ early grades as they need close observation of their daily activities. Assessment for learning and development needs to take place continually, in more than one activity or setting, in order to generate an accurate picture of each child’s abilities and understanding. a. Assessment as a learner-centred process Assessment should be designed to cater for the learner’s needs. It should aim at finding out how learners experience the learning process and what challenges they encounter. Learners should be active participants in learning and assessment, understand the criteria that are used for assessment activities, involved in self- assessment, set individual targets for themselves, reflect on their learning, and experience raised self-esteem (Naude & Davin, 2017: 75). b. Assessment as a continuous process Assessment should form an integral part of teaching and learning; without it teachers won’t know the learners’ progress and the effectiveness of their teaching strategies. Learners’ progress in Grade R should be thoroughly observed in order to identify any barriers to learning that learners may have. The Department of Education (2012: 13) states that the learner’s progress in Grade R should be closely tracked and monitored on an ongoing basis using holistic rubrics that give an account of the skills and knowledge that the learner demonstrates by observing him or her in daily activities. Assessment needs to be a continuous process that is built into the teaching and learning process (Department of Education 2014: 17). The benefit of using continuous assessment is that information from everyday activities occurring in a centre and from multiple sources offers a representative view of children’s developmental profiles and progress in learning outcomes (Ebbeck, Teo, Tan & Goh, 2014: 122). 13  14 c. Assessment as multidimensional and includes the child in totality A child is a holistic being made up of four aspects, namely physical, emotional, mental and social. The teacher cannot conclude that she has assessed the child well when she has not focused on assessing the child in all the four aspects. According to Naude and Davin (2017: 21), to obtain a multidimensional view of the learner, it is important to include three forms of assessment, namely self-assessment, peer assessment and parental involvement. These forms of assessment will be discussed further in unit 3. Assessment needs to be multidimensional or systemic in nature, located within the framework of barriers at the individual (learner and teacher), curriculum, school, family, community and social contextual levels (Department of Education 2014: 17). 1.3.3 Principles of quality assessment Assessment is a planned and systematic process; it cannot be done haphazardly. There are important principles that a teacher needs to observe in order to effectively assess learners. The teacher cannot simply give a learner one task and then conclude that a learner is performing poorly. According to Phatudi (2014: 186), assessment involves collecting information from different sources over time. It involves collecting information in different situations and at different times. The principles give a teacher clear guidance as to what a quality assessment entails. a. Authenticity Learners should be assessed using the tasks that resemble real life situations. According to Maphalala (2016: 132), authenticity in assessment requires that the assessment task should truly belong to the learner being assessed. Authentic assessment is used to indicate balanced and fair assessment of the progress of a learner when providing the learner with a variety of opportunities to demonstrate her competence in different ways and in different contexts (Dreyer, 2010). Assessment needs to be appropriate and relevant to the realities and context of the person or school concerned (Department of Education 2014: 17). Assessments are most accurate and meaningful for children when they are conducted in the child’s natural environment, are part of everyday learning experiences, and when they provide opportunities for feedback along the way. Authentic assessments provide an opportunity for assessment that is free of the adult’s own agenda. They are conducted 14  15 in a variety of contexts such as home and care settings where children are familiar with and comfortable in the environment. Using informal measures that do not significantly interfere with children’s normal environments and movements is most likely to reflect children’s full capabilities and understandings. b. Flexibility An assessment task should be designed in such a way that it assesses not only one, but a variety of skills. Maphalala (2016) states that assessment is flexible if it accommodates the scope of knowledge and skills covered by the assessment criteria. Holistic assessment allows early childhood professionals to explore and assess the many aspects of children’s learning and development in different contexts, environments and relationships. c. Fairness Assessment can be regarded as fair if learners are assessed on what they know and have been taught, and the purpose of assessment is to enhance learning (SAQA 2008: 12). Learners should be given equal assessment opportunities regardless of their ethnicity, age, gender, culture, disability, social class, language and other contextual features. Phatudi (2014: 209) states that each learner has the right to be assessed, in order to advance in his or her school career and to be prepared for the challenges and opportunities after school. d. Transparency Assessment requires learners and teachers to have a clear understanding of the relevant processes. Learners should know the purpose of assessment and what is expected of them. Teachers have to be accountable to their learners, parents, the school management and the Department of Education for their assessment practices (Phatudi, 2014: 188). e. Reliability Reliability refers to the ability of an assessment to produce similar results under consistent conditions; where, to a great extent, similar assessment-related judgements are made across similar contexts in consistent ways (SAQA, 2008: 12). Maphalala (2016: 132) maintains that reliable assessment uses methods and 15  16 procedures that ensure assessment criteria are interpreted and applied consistently from person to person and from context to context. This requires teachers to use different assessment strategies and assess learners in different contexts to ensure that the assessment results are reliable. f. Validity According to SAQA (2008: 11), validity is where an assessment measures what it sets out to measure; where procedures, methods, instruments and materials are appropriate, useful and meaningful; and where there is validation – activities to ensure validity; the assessment must cover all aspects, and only those aspects, of pupils’ achievement relevant to a particular purpose. If the whole assessment process enables educators to draw correct and justifiable conclusions about learners’ knowledge, understanding and skills, then we can say that the assessment process has validity (Killen, 2015: 377). Read the following scenario and answer the questions below: Activity 1. 3 Teacher Lindi teaches a Grade R class. She has 20 learners in her class. At the beginning of the year she started teaching this class. After three months, she decided to group her learners according to their abilities. Learners were grouped in fives: the first group comprised the learners she regarded as performing well; the second group were mediocre; and the last two groups she referred to as struggling and performing poorly. She didn’t have time to focus on learners individually. The only method of assessing that she used was observation. She would give tasks to learners to work in groups and observe them. Answer the following questions: Which principles of quality assessment have not been observed? Motivate your answer. Is it fair or enough to assess learners only in groups? Which assessment principles did teacher Lindi adhere to? Motivate your answer. 16  17 Note this: This activity will have to be discussed further in your discussion forums. Your e-Tutor will lead the discussions. Feedback In your response you were supposed to include: ▪ Principles that have not been observed - Reliability – Ms Lindi based her decision to divide the learners on one method instead of using a variety of methods. - Validity – Her conclusions about learners’ knowledge are not justifiable. ▪ One method of assessing is inadequate to base your decisions on it. ▪ Unfortunately, Ms Lindi needs to improve her assessment practice. ▪ Principles like, authenticity, flexibility and fairness were not easily identified as they talk about the content of the task and in the scenario the content was not stated. 1.3.4 The purpose of informal and formal assessment Classroom assessment can either be informal or formal. The Department of Basic Education (2011) states that in both cases it is important that learners know what knowledge and skills are being assessed, and feedback should be provided to learners after the assessment to enhance the learning experience. a. Informal assessment Informal or daily assessment may be as simple as stopping during the lesson to observe learners or to discuss with the learners how learning is progressing. Teachers are not required to record performance in informal or daily assessment tasks (DBE, 2011: 4). They can choose to keep records to help them plan intervention for learners who are experiencing difficulties or to reflect on their teaching. Informal assessment takes place by observing how learners do their tasks, what they are struggling with, and how learners work together in either a group or independently (Eastern Cape Department of Education 2013: 20). It should be used to provide feedback to the learners and teachers, close the gaps in learners’ knowledge and skills, and improve teaching (DBE 2011: 3). 17  18 b. Formal assessment Formal assessment (assessment of learning) provides teachers with a systematic way of evaluating how well learners are progressing in a particular subject and in a grade (DBE 2011: 3). This kind of assessment is usually used at the end of a topic, term or year to make decisions about whether the learner has grasped what he/she has learned. Examples of formal assessments include projects, oral presentations, demonstrations, performances, tests, examinations and practical demonstrations. Teachers are required to record learner performance in all formal assessment tasks (DBE 2011:4). According to Naude & Davin (2017: 76), although formal assessment strategies such as tests are not used in Grade R, the Grade R teacher includes formal as well as informal assessment tasks in the planning of learning experiences. 1.3.5 Assessment as a process There are different activities that are involved in assessing the learners. Assessment is used by Grade R teachers to identify learners’ interactions, conversations, ideas and expressions in order to better understand each learner’s strengths, abilities and interests. A teacher cannot succeed in supporting a learner if she doesn’t know his/her needs. It is through assessment that a learner’s abilities and shortcomings can be discovered. The following are the six steps of conducting assessment, namely planning, collecting evidence, interpreting information, recording, reporting and giving feedback. 18  19 Step 1 Step 6 Planning Provide Setting clear feedback to the goals learners Step 5 Report assessment Step 2 results Collect Report to information learners, parents and other Employing stakeholders multiple methods, forms and tools Step 4 Record Step 3 assessment results Interpret information Steps of Report cards, interviews, Making assessment letters, phone inferences calls and open days. Figure 1.1: Assessment process (Adapted from Meyer, Lombard, Warnich and Wilhuter (2010) and Naude and Davin (2017)) The above figure indicates that each assessment step should lead to the next one. For instance, once the teacher reaches the last step, which is giving feedback to learners, she should start the process again: plan, monitor and assess whether the learner has acquired the skill or still needs more support. STEP 1: Planning The main purpose of conducting an assessment is to assess the attainment of learning outcomes. The first step in the assessment process is planning. The teacher formulates the specific outcome that she/he wants to assess. During lesson planning the teacher plans also how an assessment will be conducted taking into consideration the learning outcomes and assessment criteria. It is crucial that assessment is aligned with the learning outcomes and the purpose of assessing. Below is a summary of the important questions that you need to ask yourself as a teacher during planning. 19  20 Question Response 1. What to assess? Decide on the learning outcome to assess 2. Why assess? Requires the reasons for conducting assessment 3. How do we assess? Select appropriate assessment method 4. When to assess? Decide about the time of assessment 5. Who to assess? Determine your focus: individual learner, group or general teaching strategy STEP 2: Collection of information The collection of information is done using a variety of strategies, assessment forms and tools. The teacher cannot reach a final decision about the learner’s performance without having employed different assessment strategies and assessing the learner continuously. Using different assessment strategies enables the teacher to accommodate diversity in learners. Learners have different learning styles, therefore every classroom teaching and assessment process should address diversity. According to Naude and Davin (2017: 55), the use of a variety of strategies and tools will assist teachers in achieving and mastering purposeful assessments. STEP 3: Interpretation of information According to Naude and Davin (2017: 57), this step is often neglected by teachers; they do not critically analyse and compare the learners’ performances to make sense of their progress. It is crucial that after collecting the information, the teacher should interpret the collected information. The teacher compares the learner’s performance against the learning outcomes or against the learner’s previous performance. This is known as criterion referenced, whereby the learner’s performance is compared against the learning outcomes or assessment criteria. This is unlike the old education system whereby assessment was mainly formal and the tests or examination results were presented in numerals. The learner’s performances were compared with other learners and they were rated as position 1, 2, 3… up to the last number depending 20  21 how many learners were in the class. This is known as norm referenced and this is no longer encouraged in the current system of education. This sub-topic will be discussed further in learning unit 5. STEP 4: Record assessment results According to DBE (2011: 15), records of learner performance should provide evidence of the learner’s conceptual progression within a grade and his or her readiness to progress to the next grade. Records of learner performance should also be used to verify the progress made by teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process. STEP 5: Report assessment results Reporting is a process of communicating learner performance to learners, parents, schools and the other stakeholders such as the employers and tertiary institutions. Learner performance can be reported in a number of ways. These include report cards, parents’ meetings, school visitation days, parent-teacher conferences, phone calls, letters, and class or school newsletters (DBE 2011: 15). The language in which recording and reporting is done should be in accordance with the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) as informed by the Language-in-Education Policy of 1997. STEP 6: Provide feedback to the learners One of the important aims of assessment is to give feedback to the learners so that their performances are improved. Naude and Davin (2017: 158) state that the primary aim of assessment should be to support learners’ learning by generating constructive feedback so that learners can act accordingly. The characteristics of sound feedback include that it should be frequent, give learners a clear indication of their progress and how they might improve, and provide encouragement. Feedback should not target learners personally or focus on telling them what they did wrong, but rather on giving focused, specific and clear guidelines on where they are going, how they are going there, and where they might go next (Naude & Davin 2017: 158). 1.4 Conclusion In this unit we discussed the key elements of assessment and the important characteristics of Grade R assessment. The principles of quality assessment will guide 21  22 you to design meaningful assessment activities. The difference between informal and formal assessment has been discussed. The purpose of assessment is not only to assess the attainment of the desired outcomes, but it is also about learning how learners think as well as what learners are able to accomplish. 1.5 Additional learning experience Read the article below to enhance your learning experience on the content presented in this learning unit. Zhao, X., Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M. & Veldhuis, M. 2016. Teachers’ use of classroom assessment techniques in primary mathematics education – an explorative study with six Chinese teachers. International Journal of STEM Education. Vol 3(19), 1-18. 1.6 Reflection questions Carefully read and answer the questions below: 1.6.1 Reflect on your own knowledge when thinking about high-quality assessment by using the following statements: ▪ Regular and clear communication about assessment with learners. (Yes/No) ▪ Teach learners how assessment works. (Yes/No) ▪ Involve learners actively in setting goals or next steps or developing strategies to improve learning and understanding. (Yes/No) 1.6.2 Read the following scenario and answer the questions that follow: You have been asked by the school principal to explain to parents, at a parents’ meeting, what it means to say that assessment is a continuous process. (i) Briefly explain what you will tell parents. (ii) What the difference is between formal and informal assessment? (iii) Briefly explain why we assess learners? (iv) Discuss the characteristics of assessment in Grade R and how they differ from the higher grades. 22  23 LEARNING UNIT 2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ASSESSMENT 2.1 Introduction The purpose of this unit is to teach you about the different types of assessment, their purposes within the Grade R class and how to evaluate each type of assessment with the aim of taking informed decisions during classroom practice. Please note that you are required to study all the content in this learning unit in order to complete the learning outcomes. 2.2 Learning outcomes After the completion of this learning unit you should be able to: ▪ evaluate the different types of assessment and the appropriate use will be interpreted ▪ use case studies to identify different types of assessment and to distinguish the purpose of each type ▪ differentiate between two types of assessment and reflect upon using appropriate examples In the next sub-sections, the learning outcomes will be addressed. After studying unit 1, you should have a good understanding of what classroom assessment means. Its purpose in the classroom plays a huge role in improving learner performance. Teachers are able to reflect on their use of teaching strategies by finding out through learner assessment whether they are effective. In this unit you will be able to learn about different purposes of assessment, types of assessment and their importance in Grade R. 2.3 Types of assessment There are different types of assessment that you can apply in the Grade R class. In this study you are going to learn about formative, summative and diagnostic assessment. Teachers need to have sound knowledge of different types of assessment in order to make the correct decisions about which type is suitable for a particular purpose. 23  24 2.3.1 Diagnostic assessment Some learners experience problems in grasping the learning content and the teacher has to find out the cause, hence the teacher uses diagnostic assessment. It is crucial that teachers are able to identify the learner’s barriers to learning or any slight challenge that a learner might be experiencing. Diagnostic assessment is used to find out about the nature and cause of learning difficulties that are experienced by particular learners, which, if undiagnosed, might hinder their engagement in new learning (Maphalala 2016: 132). Diagnostic assessment probes deeper than other assessments and takes extra time to conduct (Reutzel & Cooter 2013: 295). This means that it goes beyond understanding the problem that a learner may have to finding out what causes that problem. The teacher may discover that a learner has a problem in drawing a straight line on a given dotted line, cannot neatly colour in a picture and has a problem in sorting out things that belong in the same group. The teacher may find out after searching for the root cause that the learner has visual challenges. The teacher may recommend that the parent take the learner to the eye specialist for a check-up and help. Diagnostic assessment assists teachers to improve the learning outcomes, which strengthen a teacher’s teaching strategy, creating, in the long run, a far more skilled foundation phase teacher (Naude & Davin 2017: 14). 2.3.2 Summative assessment Summative assessment takes place at the end of a lesson, term or year. The purpose of this type of assessment is to get an overall picture of the progress of a learner at a given time (Excell & Linington 2015: 172). It focuses on assessing the product of learning as it happens after learning. It does not assist the learners to improve learning during the process of learning. Killen (2015: 387) contends that assessing learners at the end of the lesson or term is of limited value, as we cannot use the information to help the learners learn anything more. Examples of summative assessments are tests and examinations. They are also known as formal assessments. Naude and Davin (2017: 13) state that summative assessment is not emphasised in the early stages of the foundation phase, but is slowly incorporated from Grade R. 24  25 Other summative assessment examples include: ▪ Performance tasks to see if certain skills were acquired ▪ Multiple-choice tests to examine memory recall ▪ Participation tasks to encourage learners to engage in lectures, seminars and online forums ▪ Oral presentations so learners can demonstrate their knowledge or present research findings Summative assessment is also known as assessment of learning. Assessment of learning is used to confirm what students know and can do, to demonstrate whether they have achieved the curriculum outcomes, and, occasionally, to show how they are placed in relation to others. Maphalala (2016) states that the information gathered may be used to communicate the learners’ achievements to parents, other teachers, learners themselves, government and bursary sponsors. 2.3.3 Formative assessment Assessment should form part of teaching and learning; it should not be applied in isolation. Kanjee and Sayed (2013: 444) define formative assessment as any assessment where evidence about learner’s achievement is elicited, interpreted, and used by teachers, learners, or their peers, to make decisions about the next steps in instruction that are likely to be better, or better founded, than the decisions they would have taken in the absence of the evidence that was elicited. (Wiliam, 2011: 45). According to Maphalala (2016: 132), formative assessment is an integral part of the teaching and learning process, and takes place continuously in order to monitor learners’ progress towards the achievement of learning objectives. Naude and Davin (2017: 13) maintain that formative assessment is used by teachers to assist learners in identifying what they know, can do or value, and which aspects need more attention by the learner and the teacher. It assesses the process of learning as it is conducted during the teaching and learning process. The main value in formative assessment is that it helps learners to identify gaps in their knowledge, understanding or skills, and guides them towards closing those gaps (Killen 2015: 388). In figure 2, it is indicated that formative assessment focuses on recognising the positive achievement of a learner during the process of 25  26 learning. This kind of assessment is also known as informal assessment. It is learner- centred as it is used by learners to improve their performance. Wiliam and Thompson (2007) as cited in Kanjee and Mthembu (2015: 154) stipulate the following five conditions for the effective use of formative assessment: ▪ Clarifying and sharing learning intentions and success criteria with the learners. Sharing the learning objectives and criteria for success with learners helps to prepare them for what they are to be taught in the classroom. The learning intention tells learners what they should know, understand and be able to do, while success criteria list the evidence required to determine whether the learning intention has been achieved (Kanjee & Mthembu 2015: 154). ▪ Managing effective classroom discussions and activities to elicit evidence of learning. The achievement of the learning outcomes depends on how the teacher manages discussions and activities in the classroom to obtain evidence of learning. A range of tasks and activities are utilised to elicit information about learning; for example, using a ‘no hands up’ policy, so that the teacher is able to call upon all learners to answer questions; allowing a few seconds of ‘wait time’, so that learners have time to think about their response before answering a question; or giving learners opportunities to discuss and share ideas about questions or tasks with each other to clarify their understanding (Kanjee & Mthembu 2015: 154). ▪ Providing feedback that moves learners forward. Once a teacher becomes aware of a gap in learners’ performance, the next step should be to provide them with information that will enable them to close the gap, and thus to achieve the desired level of performance. This can be done in writing or verbally, during classroom time. ▪ Activating learners as learning resources for each other (peer assessment). Black and William (2004) note that peer assessment encourages learners to act as learning resources for one another and to encourage each other to evaluate their work and that of their counterparts as a way of focusing on their learning. ▪ Activating learners as owners of their own learning (self-assessment). Self-assessment aims to encourage learners to take ownership of the learning process, as it is through self-assessment that they may begin to accept 26  27 responsibility for progress towards their own learning goals and outcomes (Kanjee & Mthembu 2015: 154). Formative assessment examples include: ▪ Providing verbal or written summaries ▪ Peer activities that reinforce collaboration and assess the quality of each other’s work ▪ Self-assessments so learners can evaluate their own performance ▪ Lists, charts, and graphic organisers to encourage learners to communicate clearly and effectively through making connections and noting relationships 2.4 The importance of formative assessment in Grade R Grade R learners need close monitoring by teachers and parents in all that they do. They are at a stage where they are inquisitive and use all their senses to explore what is around them. This means that they question everything they see. Teachers use formative assessment to enhance individual growth, development and to monitor the progress of learners. It would enable the teacher to determine whether learners are performing according to their full potential and are making progress towards the level of achievement required for progression. Antoniou and James (2014) and Hill and McNamara (2012), as cited in Zhao, Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen and Veldhuis (2016), maintain that a distinction can be made between enhancing learners’ performance by correcting learners’ responses immediately and instantly explaining why the answer is wrong, or by a postponed action by tailoring their instruction to the needs of the students and in this way improving the learners’ learning. The illustration below (figure 2.2) presents the six key elements of formative assessment that all teachers should take into consideration in their teaching practice. 27  28 Figure 2.1: The six key elements of formative assessment Extracted: Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) (2008: 7) According to the findings by the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (2008: 7), the six important elements of formative assessment are as follows: Element 1: Establishment of a classroom culture that encourages interaction and the use of assessment tools. Teachers should create an environment where learners would actively participate in decisions about their assessment, and to feel safe enough to take risks and make mistakes in the classroom as that would likely reveal what they do and don’t understand. Element 2: Establishment of learning goals and tracking of individual student progress towards those goals. Learners’ performances are compared against the attainment of the learning goals, unlike in the traditional assessments where learners’ performances were compared to other learners’ performances. 28  29 Element 3: Use of varied instruction methods to meet diverse student needs. Learners have different learning styles, therefore teachers should use a variety of teaching methods to accommodate the learners’ different learning styles. Element 4: Use of varied approaches to assessing student understanding. Use varied approaches to assessing individual student progress over time, in realistic settings, and in a variety of contexts. Students who don’t perform well in certain tasks have the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in others. Element 5: Feedback on student performance and adaptation of instruction to meet identified needs. The main purpose of using formative assessment is to provide learners with feedback in order to motivate them to improve their performances. Feedback needs to be timely and specific, and include suggestions for ways to improve future performance. Element 6: Active involvement of students in the learning process. Learners should be actively involved in the learning process. They should be part of the decision making about their learning and assessment. Formative assessment should guide learners towards the development of their own “learning to learn” skills (also sometimes referred to as “metacognitive” strategies) (CERI 2008: 10). Activity 2.1 Search for the article below, read it and respond to the following question: www.oecd.org/site/educeri21st/40600533.pdf: Accessed 05 October 2018. Question One of the purposes of formative assessment is to build learners’ “Learning to learn skills”. Briefly explain how formative assessment builds learners’ “Learning to learn skills”. Your discussion should be based on the three points mentioned in the article. 29  30 Feedback In your response you were expected to think about the following: ▪ How crucial actively involving learners in the process of teaching, learning and assessment is. ▪ How self and peer assessment may assist in empowering the learner to take control of his/her learning. ▪ How it may assist learners to understand their learning, and know their strengths and weaknesses. 2.4.1 The difference between formative and summative assessment In the above discussions you learned about what formative and summative assessments are. In the table below (table 2.1), just refresh your mind and observe some of the differences of the two types of assessment. Can you think of more differences? Table 2.1. The differences between formative and summative assessment Formative assessment Summative assessment ▪ Assesses the process of ▪ Assesses the product of learning; it is done during the learning; it is done at the end of process of teaching and learning the teaching and learning process ▪ It is continuous ▪ It is a once off activity ▪ Learner-centred ▪ Teacher-centred ▪ Informal ▪ Formal ▪ Examples are observation, self- ▪ Examples are tests, projects assessment, peer assessment and examination ▪ Also known as assessment for ▪ Known as assessment of learning learning 30  31 ▪ Feedback is presented in a ▪ Feedback is usually presented detailed, specific and descriptive in the form of numbers, scores form of words and grades 2.5 Integrating productive pedagogies with productive assessment Quality teaching and learning will not be achieved without quality assessment and the visor versa. This why it is important that a teacher understands well what productive pedagogies entail as the three processes (teaching, learning and assessment) cannot be done in isolation. According to (Lingard, Hayes, Mills, & Christie, 2003; Killen 2018) quality learning outcomes can be achieved if teachers apply four principles of productive pedagogies. The principles are also referred to as dimensions of productive pedagogies. Based from the study that was conducted at Queensland University in Australia (1998 – 2001) the “Four dimensions of productive pedagogies and assessment” subsequently presented as a useful metalanguage for teachers to critically reflect on, and enhance, their practice towards improving learners learning (Lingard, Hayes, Mills & Christie, 2003; Killen 2015). The four dimensions of the productive pedagogies framework are intellectual quality, connectedness, supportive classroom environment, and valuing and working with difference. The diagram below (figure 2.3) shows the elements of each principle. 31  32 1. Intellectual quality 2. Connectivity - Higher order thinking - Knowledge integration - Deep knowledge - Background/prior knowledge - Substantative conversation - Connectedness to the world - Knowledge as problematic - Problem-based curriculum - Metalanguage Four Dimensions of productive pedagogies 3. Recognition of difference - Cultural knowledge - Inclusivity 4. Supportive classroom environment - Narrative -Learner direction - Group identity - Learner support - Active citizenship - Academic engagement - Explicit performance criteria - Self-regulation Figure 2.2: Dimensions of productive pedagogies Lingard et al., (2003) maintain that the dimensions of productive pedagogies promote the provision of a high-quality education for all learners, and especially learners from disadvantaged backgrounds. For students to demonstrate high level intellectual outcomes they must be provided with a learning environment that stimulates intellectual activity, this can be possible if good teaching and assessment practices are integrated. 2.5.1 Intellectual quality The intellectual quality dimension of the Productive Pedagogies model stresses the importance of all learners, regardless of background and perceived academic ability, being presented with intellectually challenging work (Sarra, 2006). According to Killen (2015), intellectual quality can be achieved if learners are engaged in higher order thinking, if learning focuses on the deep knowledge of the subject, if pedagogy focuses on producing deep understanding, and if the learners are engaged in substantive communication about the things they are learning. 32  33 2.5.2 Connectedness Learners are interested to talk or learn about the things that they know and which are relevant to their understanding. The teacher should ensure that the abstract tasks of the curriculum are linked with the learners’ prior knowledge. This means that the teacher should assess how much learners know about the new lesson in order to build on that. The activities and tasks that learners do should have a resemblance or connection to real life contexts. 2.5.3 Supportive classroom environment The productive pedagogies framework suggested that students be given a voice in the classroom in order to have some say over the direction that activities take within various units of work, that explicit criteria be provided to students so that expectations are clear, and that a classroom environment is created where students are prepared to take risks with their learning. Each learner should be provided with support in areas of his/her need. 2.5.4 Valuing and working with difference The presence of this dimension in a classroom enables teachers to teach for democracy; that is to provide learners with the skills and knowledge necessary for them to act as responsible members of a democratic community (Malloy, 2002). Killen (2015) states that different cultural groups have different experiences of the world (both past and present) and this leads to members of each group having distinctive cultural knowledge that should be acknowledged and valued. The element of inclusivity implies that all learners should feel they are involved in classroom activities, because their backgrounds, interests, insights and intelligences are valued (Killen 2018). Narrative can be used to help learners build their understanding (when stories are told by the teacher or learners) and as a means of testing learners’ understanding (when assessment tasks require learners to produce narratives) (Killen 2015). 33  34 Activity 2.2 (i) Higher order thinking is one of the elements of an intellectual quality dimension. How would you assess your Grade R learners in such a way that you promote higher order thinking? (ii) How would you ensure that you have created a supportive environment in your Grade R class? (iii) What can you do to comply with the principle of valuing and working with differences in your Grade R class? Feedback In your response, you were expected to: ▪ think about the tasks that would make learners think ▪ use the elements of supportive classroom environment as key words in your discussion ▪ think about activities that would involve different cultures, food, attire, language or dance. Think of how you can involve all your learners. 2.6 The role of assessment for learning in the foundation phase Assessment for learning is when assessment assists learners to understand their abilities and how they are able to improve their performances. Seeking and interpreting evidence is for use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go, and how best to get there. According to Maphalala (2016: 131), assessment for learning is a continuous process of gathering and interpreting evidence about learners’ learning for the purpose of determining learners’ progress to inform the teaching and learning process. Learners are given an opportunity to take control of their learning, they can choose the tasks that they want to do, reflect on their previous performance, and do self-assessment and peer assessment. 34  35 Assessment for learning is also known as formative assessment. It is learner-centred as it is used by learners to better their performances. It assesses the process of learning as it takes place continuously during teaching and learning. According to Killen (2015: 388), the main value of assessment for learning, is that it helps learners to identify gaps in knowledge, understanding or skills and guides them towards closing gaps. Within the formative assessment process, early childhood professionals gather evidence of children’s learning and development, based on what they write, draw, make, say and do. If an assessment is properly done it can encourage learners to change their attitude and desire to achieve more. Teachers should ensure that assessment activities do not demotivate learners, but encourage them to be self-motivated. Learners should be given hope if they are not performing well and they should give themselves time to learn their work. They also discuss their interpretation with the child and the child’s family, as well as other professionals when appropriate, to develop a strong picture of the child’s strengths, abilities and interests. 2.6.1 Assessment collaborations Assessment is conducted every day in classrooms. It is inextricably tied to instruction, and is always mediated by the particular needs of students. The following scenario shows two teachers’ learning journey as they collaborate, plan, rethink, try out, and reflect on their assessment and instruction practices. Their explanation sets the stage for the approaches elaborated upon in subsequent chapters. Scenario Miss Ndlovu was in the staff room analysing and interpreting her Grade R learners’ performances and thinking about what she could do to help Tsepo. He does not show any progress in literacy. Tsepo was an enigma to her. Sometimes he responded well to questions she asked him in class, but mostly he just looked down. Recently, he had begun disturbing others in class. Mr Mayise, the drama teacher, came in. “Hi Miss Ndlovu. You look to be deep in thought. Is something wrong?” “I’m concerned about Tsepo. He just failed another task. Have you noticed anything unusual about his behaviour in drama class recently?” 35  36 “No. But I have been very impressed with the creative ideas he has for blocking the set.” “Blocking the set? What do you mean?” “It’s part of staging a play, deciding where to place things on the stage, what props we need, who should enter from where, things like that. Tsepo has a different way of seeing things that really helped the class plan the stage layout. He’s able to visualise the scene and the entire stage. He had several suggestions about where to put the props to divide the stage into areas that are complex irregular shapes, but are all about equal size so that each area is just large enough for the characters and the action. And he suggested a way to move just one wall to make a different configuration for another scene, without disrupting the visual proportions.” Miss Ndlovu looked surprised; “It doesn’t sound like the same Tsepo that I had just been thinking about.” Miss Ndlovu began to think about how to tap into Tsepo’s ability to visualise spatial relationships and dramatising, and to use this to scaffold his literacy learning. “You know, Mr Mayise, I’ve also been thinking about the professional growth plan that we’re to do. I’d like to do something to help me better understand Tsepo. Maybe we could work as a team, if you’re interested? We could focus on differentiating instruction, not just for Tsepo, but for all of the kids.” Miss Ndlovu had been thinking about the diversity of the learners in her class and the need for diversity in relation to their learning. Two of the learners were following individual learning plans. The next day, Mr Mayise and Miss Ndlovu began drafting their joint professional growth plan. They agreed to take an action research approach to understanding Tsepo’s and the others’ learning needs. The focus would be literacy. Miss Ndlovu would work with Tsepo in the classroom, and Mr Mayise would make focused observations of Tsepo in drama and literacy class. Mr Mayise would also contribute and learn by being a “critical friend” to Miss Ndlovu as they generated ideas, planned instruction, debriefed how things worked, and reflected on what they were learning. They made a list of books and websites to investigate, and agreed to meet once a week. They would each keep journals of their planning, the results of their strategies, their reflections, and questions for follow up. 36  37 Miss Ndlovu needed to assess what each learner already understood about literacy, the gaps in understanding, and their thinking processes when problems to solve. Miss Ndlovu and Mr Mayise developed a set of tasks designed to gather some initial understanding of learners’ prior knowledge. Each learner was given grid paper, counters, and a set of fraction tiles to use in any way he or she wished. They were each given six sheets of paper, with one task on each sheet. On their task sheets they were to demonstrate their thinking as they came up with solutions. They could demonstrate this thinking by drawing or writing, or both. The first task would be done in their “home groups”. The remaining five tasks would be done individually, but their explanations would be shared with their “literacy buddy” later. Miss Ndlovu explained that their work on these tasks would give them, as well as her, a good idea about what they needed to do next in order to fully understand their strengths and weaknesses. Adapted: Manitoba Education, Citizenship and Youth (2006) Activity 2.3 The above scenario should have taught you many things about quality assessment and assessment collaborations that teachers can form. ▪ Identify the types of assessment that the two teachers use and state why have you chosen those types? ▪ What purposes do the above two teachers conduct assessments for? ▪ Are their assessment practices in line with the assessment principles that you learned in unit 1? ▪ What do you think about Miss Ndlovu and Mr Mayise’s collaboration? Is it worthwhile? Elaborate. Feedback The above scenario shows that teaching can achieve good results if they work together to understand and support learners. This is called collaboration. In this way teachers get an opportunity to discuss their strengths and shortcomings and are able to get support from other colleagues. In responding to the above questions, you are expected to do the following: 37  38 ▪ The above questions required you to think and show how much you understand about the types of assessment and their purposes. ▪ State what you think about the two teachers’ collaboration exercise. 2.7 Additional Resources 2.7.1 Articles ▪ For learning more information on the types of assessment, you can read: Van der Kleij, F., Vermeulen, J.A., Schildkamp, K. & Eggen, T.J.H.M. 2015. Integrating data-based decision making, Assessment for Learning and diagnostic testing in formative assessment. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice. Vol. 22(3), 324-343. ▪ For learning more information about Four Dimensions of Productive Pedagogies, you can read: Mills, M., Goos, M., Keddie, A., Honan, E., Pendergast, D., Gilbert, R., Nichols, K., Renshan, P. and Wright, T. 2006. Productive Pedagogies: A redefined Methodology for analysing Quality Teacher Practice. The University of Queensland: The University Printers. 2.7.2 Videos ▪ https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=Assessments+in+Early+Childhood+E ducation&Form=VQFRVP ▪ https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=Assessments+in+Early+Childhood+E ducation&Form=VQFRVP ▪ https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=formative+assessment+in+early+child hood&view=detail&mid=DB: Accessed 05 October 2018. 38  39 2.8 Reflection questions a. Which statements below can you relate to the following types of assessment: baseline, diagnostic, summative and formative assessment? (i) Evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard or benchmark. (ii) This type of assessment is used to find out about the nature and cause of learning difficulties that are experienced by particular learners. (iii) Monitor student learning to provide ongoing feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching and by students to improve their learning. (iv) It takes place prior to learning to assist teachers to make decisions about the level or skill before the teaching takes place. b.Complete the following table: Questions Formative Summative What is its purpose? When does it happen? Examples? What is it also known as? Is it teacher-centred or learner-centred? c. Provide the reasons why formative assessment is conducted? d. Describe at least five different ways in which you could informally assess learners in Grade R. e. The National Protocol for Assessment Grades R-12 states that assessment in South African schools should provide indications of learner achievement in the most effective and efficient manner by ensuring that adequate evidence of achievement is collected using various forms of assessment (DBE 2011:3). (i) Explain why it is important to use a variety of forms of assessment in order for the assessment process to be effective and efficient? 39  40 (ii) List five activities that you would give to your Grade R class to promote and assess their deep understanding. (iii) Compare your list with that of another student teacher of the same subject. Why does your lists differ or the same? 40  41 LEARNING UNIT 3 ASSESSMENT METHODS 3.1 Introduction The purpose of this unit is to equip you with the skills and knowledge to select appropriate assessment methods and tools to gather authentic data on learners’ learning. Please note that you are required to study all the content in this learning unit in order to complete the learning outcomes. 3.2 Learning outcomes After the completion of this learning unit you should be able to: ▪ design appropriate assessment tools aligned to learning outcomes ▪ identify appropriate assessment methods and tools through case based studies ▪ analyse relevant curriculum related content statements and identify the relevant learning outcome to be assessed (skills, knowledge, product and disposition outcomes) In the next sub-sections, the learning outcomes will be addressed. In learning unit 2 you learned about the purposes of assessment. Quality assessment enables teachers to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the learners as well as shortcomings of their teaching methods. In this unit you will learn about different assessment methods, tools and their purposes. You will learn more details about tools in unit 5. In unit 1 you learned that we assess the attainment of the learning outcomes. The learning outcomes can be in the form of skills, knowledge, attitudes and values. The teacher can then choose the appropriate assessment methods to collect information. This unit will equip you with the knowledge of different assessment methods. Teachers need to possess the knowledge of different methods of assessing Grade R learners in different contexts before a final conclusion can be made about the learners’ progress. 41  42 3.3 Assessment methods The selection of an appropriate assessment method is informed by the purpose of assessing. If the purpose of assessing is to monitor learners’ progress in a particular theme, a relevant method should be selected in order to understand how much the learners have grasped of the lesson. Knowledge of assessment methods assists teachers in choosing the appropriate methods for the content to be assessed. It is crucial that before selecting an assessment method, a teacher should consider the following important elements: ▪ The method selected should fit the purpose of assessment: According to Naude and Davin (2017), the teacher must first decide what kind of information about the learners is needed; in other words, the purpose of the assessment needs to be determined. ▪ The method of assessment should be a meaningful task for the learner. ▪ The assessment method should assess a variety of competencies, knowledge, skills, emotions and values. ▪ The assessment method should be authentic: Learners should be able to connect the assessment task with the real world. ▪ A variety of methods should be used: This will assist to create opportunities for the learners to demonstrate their development in the mastering of certain skills, knowledge and attitudes. There are different kinds of assessment methods. In this module you are going to learn about the ones that are most relevant to Grade R, namely observation, oral questioning, portfolio assessment, self-assessment, group assessment and involving parents as assessors. You will learn about why we use each assessment method, how we use it, when we use it, and how it assists in improving the learners’ performances. 3.3.1 Observation Observation as an assessment method is the most appropriate and commonly used to assess Grade R learners. This is because Grade R learners require very close monitoring of performance and behaviour by the teacher as well as the caregivers. This close monitoring of the learner assists in identifying any challenges that the learner may be experiencing so that it can be addressed with immediate effect. 42  43 According to Naude and Davin (2017: 37), observation is a planned, purposeful action by the teacher to obtain first-hand information about the learner in everyday situations that will result in better insight and understanding of the learner’s learning and development. They state that observation is not just looking at or seeing something, but it is looking for something. The teacher observes the learners with a purpose. Among other reasons, it can be to find out whether the learners can follow instructions, are applying the knowledge that they have acquired, and how they work together as a group. Narratives can be helpful in observing and recording the following: Gross motor skills Fine motor skills Social interactions Spontaneous language Play patterns Interests After observing learners perform a task, a variety of information can be collected. It can be information related to the following, for example: ▪ Cognitive development – The teacher can observe how much a learner has developed mentally. Is the learner able to perform tasks at his grade level? Is the learner able to apply what he has learned? Is he able to understand and follow instructions? ▪ Social development – The teacher can observe how the learner relates to other learners. Is he able to do tasks with a group? Is he able to share learning aids and his own things with other learners? ▪ Emotional development – The teacher can observe whether the learner is able to control his/her emotions. Does he respect and show sympathy to other learners? ▪ Physical development – The teacher can observe fine and gross motor skills development. Is he able to hold the pen properly? Is his vision and hearing working properly? Is he able to play with other learners in the field? In one lesson, a teacher can collect information about a child related to all the above categories of development. 43  44 Activity 3.1 Read the following scenario and respond to the questions below: Scenario Thabo is a Grade R boy who lives with only his grandmother. He did not attend any pre-Grade R class. Miss Molefe is Thabo’s class teacher. After chatting with his grandmother she learned that Thabo is an orphan. His parents left him at the age of two and he has since stayed with his granny in one of the informal settlements around the school. The grandmother is a pensioner, so they survive on social grants. Miss Molefe observed several times that Thabo is not a happy child. He does not like playing with other learners during break time. He simply stands and watches other learners playing. He is sometimes grumpy; when other learners try to play with him, he gets angry and even cries. He sometimes hits other learners. He does not want to share his belongings and the classroom resources with other learners. If he needs something from other learners, he cries if they don’t give it to him. When working in groups in class Thabo does not participate well. He keeps quiet or wants to do the task alone. The class teacher has observed that in individual tasks he performs well. He listens and follows instructions well. He is able to understand what is taught. The teacher is satisfied with his progress in that area. Thabo is able to write and handle different objects correctly. Alone he is able to build models using building blocks alone; the only challenge is when he has to build them with a group. He will not allow other learners to touch the building blocks. He enjoys practical tasks. He can run fast, throw objects, jump and climb steps. Questions a. Identify the assessment method that was used by Miss Molefe. b. After reading what Miss Molefe observed about Thabo, briefly discuss your thoughts about Thabo’s development using the sub-topics below and support your discussion with examples from the scenario: Emotional development Social development Physical development 44  45 Intellectual development Feedback After looking at Miss Molefe’s assessment of Thabo’s development, you should have included the following in your response: Emotional development – Miss Molefe’s observation is that Thabo is not a happy child. He is grumpy and he sometimes cries when other learners try to play with him. He cries when he does not get what he wants. Social development – He does not want to play with other learners; he stands alone and watches them playing. He does not share resources with other learners. Physical development – He is able to hold a pen, write and hold objects properly. He builds models with building blocks. He runs, jumps and climbs. Intellectual development – Follows instructions and is able to understand what has been taught. The above scenario has shown us how valuable information can be obtained through observation. Miss Molefe was able to observe a number of aspects in one lesson. This would enable her to plan for an appropriate intervention. It is important that teachers record information that they collect during an observation period. The teacher can record information collected during observation using a variety of methods, like descriptive records, ratings and audio-visual recordings. 3.3.1.1 Descriptive records Descriptive records are written explanations about the teacher’s observation of the learners’ performances. This method of recording the learners’ performances is part of a formative assessment. Formative assessment requires that each learner’s performance should be recorded using qualitative information, unlike summative assessment whereby the learners’ performances are recorded using numbers (quantitative). The teacher is able capture specific incidents that occur during the course of the day or designated activity. 45  46 According to Naude and Davin (2017:41), during the observation the teacher does not only listen to verbal responses, but also takes note of different aspects, like the learner’s pronunciation of words, tone, word choice and non-verbal responses (gestures and facial expressions). Descriptive records enable the teacher to record even fine details about the learner’s behaviour that could not be captured using other methods of recording. It is important for a Grade R teacher to record the learner’s behaviour in detail because they are at a stage of rapid development and they are about to start with formal education. At this stage it should be established whether the learner is ready to begin formal schooling because, if they are not ready, it is crucial to provide immediate appropriate intervention. It is advisable to record the learner’s information immediately to ensure that the observations are reliable and valid. There are various terms that are used in the literature for the same, or nearly the same types of descriptive records, for instance, anecdotal, narrative records, running records, diary inscriptions and specimen records (these will be discussed in detail in unit 5). ▪ Anecdotal records can be described as brief notes made as the teacher observes something noteworthy about a learner or learners (Phatudi 2014:195). The teacher may record what happened and some contextual details to assist her to remember the scene for future reference. The notes can be recorded in a notebook or observation book, with separate sections for each learner’s name, or it can be done according to the date. An example of an anecdotal record is provided below: Table 3.1: Sample anecdotal record Anecdotal note about Thapelo’s progress in class. It is the third day Thapelo does not seem to be well. He does not want to participate in group work and does not play with other learners during break time. This is unlike Thapelo as he is known as a very bubbly child who is always active and jumps to all the tasks given in groups. After trying to ask him what was wrong, he said there was nothing wrong but simply cried. I have 46  47 urgently called the parent to come to school so that we can discuss the matter. ▪ Running records: The teacher records everything the child says and does. The difference betw