Art of Engraving PDF

This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the information in books and make it universally accessible. https://books.google.com engraving of Art KF 16203 PAUL JOSEPH SACHS HARVARD UNIVERSITY...

This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the information in books and make it universally accessible. https://books.google.com engraving of Art KF 16203 PAUL JOSEPH SACHS HARVARD UNIVERSITY WIDENER LIBRARY 金量非會 - - - - 一生一番。  The ART OF ENGRAVING A Practical Treatise on the Engraver's Art, with Special Reference to Letter and Monogram Engraving SPECIALLY COMPILED As a Text-Book for Students and Reference Book and Guide for Engravers OfER TWO HUNDRED ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS SECOND EDITION PUBLISHED BY THE KEYSTONE THE ORGAN OP THE JEWELRY AND OPTICAL. TRADES 19th & Brown Sts., Philadelphia, U.S.A. 1904 All Rights Reserved KE /6208 HARVARD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY HARVARD UNIVERSITY WIDENER LIBRARY  PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION The great need which existed for a masterful treatise on practical engraving has been conclusively proved by the quick sale of the first edition of this work. Such has been the demand for it that the entire first edition has been sold within one year from the date of publication, an unusual record of sales in the case of a purely technical treatise. The explanation lies in the merit of the book and in the fact that previous to its publication there was no treatise available which could be truthfully described as thoroughly covering this important subject. The want of a standard text-book on the art of engraving was greatly felt by teachers and students alike, and it was to supply this want, as well as to aid in the advancement of the art itself, that this work was undertaken. It means much for the student that the author of this book had the dual qualification of being an expert engraver and a successful instructor of engraving. This ensures at the same time accuracy and reliability of matter and such a course of instruction as expe rience has proved to be most effective in enabling the student to master the art. A helpful feature of the work is an unusual abundance of original and carefully-executed illustrations. The Publisher  COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY B. THORPE, PUBLISHER OF THE KEYSTONE. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON , ENG.  CONTENTS CHAPTER I. Introductory 9 CHAPTER II. Mechanical Drawing 13 CHAPTER III. Tools and Materials for the Beginner 23 CHAPTER IV. First Exercises in Engraving 30 CHAPTER V. Block Letters 35 CHAPTER VI. Methods of Cutting Block Letters 40 CHAPTER VII. Script Letters. 47 CHAPTER VIII. Cutting Small or Lower-Case Script Letters 54 CHAPTER IX. The Formation of the Script Capitals 61 CHAPTER X. Looped Script 68 CHAPTER XI. The Practical Use of Script Letters 76 CHAPTER XII. Engraving Coffin Plates in Script 80 CHAPTER XIII. Engraving on Thimbles and Inside of Rings 86 CHAPTER XIV. Engraving Inscriptions in Script 91 6 The Art of Engraving. CHAPTER XV. Old English 97 CHAPTER XVI. Method of Cutting Old English 101 CHAPTER XVII. Some Uses and Styles of Old English 111 CHAPTER XVIII. Roman Letters 117 CHAPTER XIX. Odd Letters... 121 CHAPTER XX. Engraving in Spoons and on Bangles 127 CHAPTER XXI. Shaded Old English 134 CHAPTER XXII. Engraing Script Inscriptions 143 CHAPTER XXIII. Inscriptions in Different Styles of Letters 151 CHAPTER XXIV. Engraving on Spoon Handles 155 CHAPTER XXV. Letters on Spoon Handles and Lockets 162 CHAPTER XXVI. Designing and Engraving Ciphers 165 CHAPTER XXVII. Entwined and Ornamental Ciphers 174 CHAPTER XXVIII. Parallel Line Ciphers 180 CHAPTER XXIX. Flower Leaf Ciphers 184 CHAPTER XXX. Block Ciphers 187 THE ART OF ENGRAVING  THE ART OF ENGRAVING. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. In taking up the study of engraving with a determination to thoroughly master the art it may be interesting to look back over the fading pages of history and learn whence this art came. If we read the traditional story of prehistoric man down to and including the men of the stone age we learn that back in those dark ages when no other implements or tools were known save those made from stone, some of the men of the period were spending their leisure time whittling weapons and engraving on stone the forms of animals with which they were familiar. It is difficult for the modern engraver sitting in the front window of a beautifully decorated jewelry store to conceive that the art of engraving had its birth amongst the cave-dwellers of the stone age, and that the first engraving tool was the hard stone with which softer stones were engraved. But so it was, for we have proof in abundance that the art of engraving was known to men before the discovery of metals and previous to the bronze age. This most beautiful art, therefore, being the oldest known to man and one which has come down through the centuries gaining in excellence, popularity and prestige, it behooves the student who decides to study engraving and to follow it as a business or a de partment connected with his business to realize that he is dealing not with a mere trade, but with an art difficult of mastery and capable of limitless development. ADVICE TO BEGINNERS. Considering the advantages with which man is blessed in this age of higher education, beginners should so begin that the work which they do from the very start may be of permanent ad vantage to them. Mention of this is deemed advisable thus early because it is a well-known fact that there are many who have been 1o The Art of Engraving. doing ' ' engraving ' ' for years with no apparent advancement. To begin right is the first step towards success, and such a beginning is not only advisable, but imperative, for we are living in a century that demands from all artisans the most thorough workmanship. The standard, too, is becoming more exacting. Indeed, the art has progressed so rapidly in recent years that it has reached a high point of perfection, far in advance of the workmanship accomplished in earlier times. The student to-day should begin by learning the rudiments, that most valuable foundation which so many overlook. He must, if he ever hopes to be master of his chosen profession, become familiar with and an adept in all the details of the work which are the stepping stones leading up to a high degree of perfection. Such thorough study and mastery of detail are essential, too, as the means by which the most perfect work is accomplished in the least time. It is a fact that cannot be disputed that the great leaders of recent years in many professions, trades or businesses are those who have given strict attention to the study of little things, or the details appertaining to their work, and by so doing have mastered the work in much less time than they could have done so with any sat isfaction by the stumbling-over method. It has been the privilege and experience of all teachers of engraving to observe students study and practice in both the thorough and the careless method, and the observation has proved that the student going about his work with a determination and a knowledge of the rudiments is the one who masters his work in the least time and the one whose finished work is complete and correct. Following this mode of procedure the engraver does not find it necessary to retrace his steps, ' ' patch up ' ' and tamper with his work after it has passed the finishing stages. The necessity of beginning aright and following technical lines cannot be too thoroughly impressed upon the student's mind. To the knowledge of the author there have been men connected with the jewelry business for thirty or thirty-five years, during which time they have made an attempt to engrave (if the term may be used without discredit to the art) all the goods they sold that called for engraving. After these years of nervous strain on all sides they are aroused from their slumbers and find that the reason they cannot do better after so much practice is because they did not know how to do any of the work correctly, and they were willing to admit  Introductory. 11 that a few of the necessary beginning points, if explained and fol lowed, would have enabled them to accomplish much better work in much less time. How many pieces of gold and silver go forth from a jewelry store simply to proclaim the awkwardness and in ability of the engraver ? And if we compare such work with the beautiful specimens taken from some of our high-class stores we are convinced at once that the former show the lack of knowledge of the first lessons while the latter show the highest degree of adherence to the strict rules of detail. TECHNICAL TRAINING. There are many technical points connected with learning the art of engraving correctly and thoroughly that may be considered unnecessary by many of our readers. It is true that some may not be able to foresee wherein some one particular point to which attention will be called will, in time to come, be of value to him, nevertheless, the knowledge will help him in many ways, and at times when he is least aware of the necessity or advantage of it. Thus, readers who follow this work to the end will find only such technicalities as are advantageous and worthy of careful consideration. For instance, some readers may deem it unnecessary to possess any knowledge of geometry or mechanical drawing to master the art of engraving. While it is true that there are a great many high-class artists who have overlooked some of these points, yet it is possible that, had they deemed it advisable at the beginning to study the little points in geometry, they would have executed the work even better and easier. The error of not beginning properly by the thorough study of the preliminaries and technicalities can be proven in many cases, but one reference will suffice. We will suppose the engraver has to engrave a duplicate of a watch dial on the front case of a watch to enable the owner to see the time by cutting out a small hole over the center of the timepiece, as shown in the demi-hunter here illustrated. An instance of this came to the attention of the author a few years since, it being nec essary to engrave on the outside of the front case a fac-simile of the watch dial. 12 The Art of Engraving. Now, if we have no knowledge of mechanical drawing how are we to do the work with such accuracy and rapidity as we would if we were the happy possessors of such knowledge. It can be done by guess work, but not with that degree of accuracy that would be required by the customers who patronize high-class stores. While, on the other hand, it could be easily accomplished by one with but a little knowledge of mechanical drawing, which it will be our pleasure to illustrate in another chapter. There are hundreds of cases where such information will be found necessary. This being true, and considering the short time required to learn this branch, why neglect it ? It is safe to say that some engravers spend more time in three months correcting errors that could be avoided if they had some knowledge of mechanical drawing than would be required to gain such knowledge. This treatise will, however, be written with only such mention and description of geometrical problems and other detail work as are considered by the author necessary to expert work, and the judgment dictating these details is based upon years of observation and practical instructing. There are many ambitious young men, to-day, who would find their work a pleasure if they had been properly trained in their work in the beginning. Appealing to the good judgment of the reader to admit the advisability of thoroughness, it will be the author's pleasure to direct the reader correctly and with rapidity. The age in which we live demands care and knowledge, and it is necessary that those desirous of learning the art of engraving should have at their disposal written instructions outlining the detail of the work in such a manner that the treatise will be not merely a text-book for the beginner, but a guide and book of reference for the qualified engraver. While it is true that the art of engraving, especially in mono gram and ornamental work, depends largely upon the artistic skill of the engraver, it is also a fact that those possessing such artistic ideas have passed through an early training of a character sufficiently technical to give to a fertile brain and correct eye a broad conception of the art. Taking for granted, therefore, that an elementary knowledge of the art of drawing and an ability to represent outlines by simple lines are among the accomplishments a novice should possess before proceeding with practical engraving, we will illustrate and describe such as are deemed advisable.  CHAPTER II. MECHANICAL DRAWING. At Fig. 1 is illustrated an instrument known as a protractor, which is used for measuring or laying off angles, or for dividing circles into a number of equal parts. The outer edge of the pro tractor is a semi-circle whose center is 0 and is divided into 360 parts, each therefore being equal to half a degree. There are also protractors which are divided into 180 parts, one-half Fig. 1 of a circle, in which case each part would represent a degree. Should we wish to use a protractor to measure or lay off an angle, we must place it so that the edge 0 B will coincide with the line that forms one side of the angle to be laid off or measured, and the center O will form the vertex of the angle. For example, suppose we desire to lay off on an angle of 45 ° with a line C D at the point M, Fig. 2, we would in such case lay the protractor on the paper with the edge O B, to co incide with the line at the point M; then we would make a mark with a sharp \ M pencil at the 45° FiR. 2 division on the outer edge of the protractor, as indicated at H, as that we wish to lay off. Now a line drawn from such a point through to the center M will make the required angle. One of the first instruments aside from the protractor that the beginner in drawing should have, is a square known as a carpenter's square. For engravers' use one three inches horizontally and two inches perpendicularly would answer very nicely. Such a square could be made of celluloid by the aid of mechanical drawing or by 14 The Art of Engraving. the use of a steel square. The object of suggesting celluloid is that it is pliable and would conform to some of the uneven surfaces which the engravers have to deal with with some degree of accu racy ; but it must be remembered that a metal square is far more accurate, as it is perfectly solid and firm. The beginner should also possess a parallel rule, shown at Fig. 3. These rules could be easily made, or can be purchased at any book store. He should also have a 6-H pencil, or one equally Fig. 3 hard, and two pencils of a softer lead. A pair of compasses of good quality is also one of the instruments with which a beginner should familiarize himself and have in his stock of tools. Triangles, such as shown at Fig. 4, are made in celluloid and can be purchased at book stores. All beginners should have such an instrument, which, if it cannot be conveniently purchased, can be easily made. Mechanical drawings are usually made by the aid of a drawing- board, which will simplify and facilitate the work. I would advise Fig. 4 the beginner, in learning to make accurate drawings, to use a drawing-board, a diagram of which is shown at Fig. 5. Drawing- boards are usually made of some soft wood. Well-seasoned white pine of straight grain is considered good. The grain should run lengthwise of the board and should be free from knots, so that it will easily receive the thumb tacks used to fasten down the corners of the paper. The surface should be flat and smooth, in order that  Mechanical Drawing. 15 the paper will lie smoothly and close to the board. The edges should be smooth and must form right angles one with the other. To prevent warping, strips should be tongued into the ends, as shown at Fig. 6. This board should be about 12x18 inches. Fig. 5 Fig. 5B The T-square, shown at A, is used for drawing horizontal straight lines. In using it the short piece of square is placed against the left edge of the drawing-board, as shown at Fig. 5, and the upper edge of the blade is brought over near to the point through which the line is to be drawn, so that a straight edge of the blade can be used as a guide for the pencil in making such lines. If the edge of the drawing-board is constructed as it should be, all lines drawn in this manner must of necessity- be parallel. Now we will sup pose that it is desired to make lines parallel or at right angles with these parallel horizontal lines. In this case the triangle illustrated at Fig. 4 and shown also at Fig. 5, resting against the T-square, is used. The edge of the triangle slides freely along the edge of the blade of the T-square and, by virtue of. i; i6 The Art of Engraving. the high degree of accuracy of its shape, the lines drawn along the left side of it must necessarily be perfectly perpendicular. The object of making these lines in this way is that, if equi-distant, they can be used for increasing or decreasing the size of an object by the process which is often used in enlarging and diminishing large paintings, such as the paintings on the curtains of a theater or others of like character. The process thus described is as follows : Draw across the original picture a number of equi-distant and horizontal lines forming perfect squares and number the two sets of lines in succes sion, as shown at Fig. 7 ; then draw a simple series of lines on a clean sheet of paper, setting the lines an equal, a greater or a less distance apart and copy in succession the parts of the figure that are enclosed within the several squares. At Fig. 7 such drawings are illustrated in the two '—5—L-JL ? y !j g sizes, which will explain X X 1 3 5 7 9 it 13 15 y jHy x V this method. As it is not \ \1 j&QI£J \VL 1J/ / r always possible to draw 1 lines across a figure, they ▼ ui "* v l: 11 1II! 1 1 11 1. may be replaced by a frame Fig. 7 carrying fine threads or wires stretched in the two directions. The frame can be laid over the original drawing, which can then be copied, as we have explained, on a sheet of paper divided into squares. Having placed the frame above or in front of the object and in contact with it, copy on to the sectional paper the contents of each corresponding square, taking care to look at each perpendicularly. With a little practice and by placing ki a correct position with and always at the same distance from the frame, a distance which may be regulated by a glass, a sketch may, in fair proportions, be obtained. This method of enlarging or diminishing the size of objects may not be of much value to most engravers, but cases will arise in which a knowledge of such a method will be useful. The T-square is made of hard wood, rubber or steel and should be of a simple pattern, as shown at Fig. 5 b. The T-square should be provided with a hole at the end for hanging up when not in use, and should always be suspended by the blade, through which the hole is made, as shown. Great care should be exercised with all drawing instruments.  Mechanical Drawing. 17 MECHANICAL DRAWING EXERCISES. One of the first things for a beginner to draw is a square, which is made as follows : First draw a horizontal line measuring 3 inches long, then erect perpendiculars 3 inches long at A and B, using the triangle shown at Fig. 4 ; then draw C D at extremities of the perpendicu lars, which completes the square, Fig. 8. The next exercise would be drawing circles, which can be done with great accu racy with the compasses of their various sizes. The student should bear in mind that in drawing circles with the compasses that the hand should incline the compasses solely Fig. 8 in the direction in which they are moved. In making equi-lateral triangle, as shown at Fig. 9, draw a horizon tal line D E of any desired length ; then take £asa center and D E as a radius and describe an arc ; then take D as a center and D E as a radius and describe an arc. Now from the point E, where the two arcs intersect, draw lines to the points D and E. To find the center of a Fig. 9 circle, mark on the circumference or on the arc three points, ABC; next join A to B, B to C ; at the middle points of these lines erect per pendiculars. (The middle points are de termined in the man ner explained for erecting a perpendic ular, Fig. 12, except ing that the intersect ing arcs are described on both sides of the Fig. 10 [8 The Art of Engraving. line, the perpendicular being a line joining these points at the inter section. ) The point of intersection of these perpendiculars will be the center. A like method can be used when desired to describe a circle passing through any three given points, shown at Fig. 10. To draw a spiral curve draw four lines forming a small square, as shown at Fig. 11. O is taken as a center of the first arc DM; C is the center of ML; U of L H; D of HS; then, to con Fig. 11 tinue, the curve 0 is once again taken as the center of 5" N, and so on. This method produces a volute in which the coils are at a considerable distance apart. To erect a perpendicular on a straight line, either com passes or a straight square can be employed. The use of the latter is so simple that no fur ther reference need be made to it. Let us assume E, Fig. 12, L to be the point in the line A B Fig. 12 at which a perpendicular is to be drawn : on either side of ZT measure off equal distances E A, E B, from A and B ; with any radius greater than E B or E A draw two arcs intersecting at D. If their point of intersection, D, be joined to E, the line (!-' D E will be the re quired perpendicular. To divide a line I,*'' into any number of equal parts we pro ceed as follows : Let Q ft Fig. 13 A B be the given line to be divided. With any convenient angle to A B draw A C of indefinite length. On A C lay off the required number of equal parts. From the last  Mechanical Drawing. 19 point of division, as M (the angle MBA can be any magnitude), draw M B through the extremity of A B as B. Then through points R~, H, G, /"and E, respectively, draw lines parallel to M B and cutting A B at S, R, Q, /'and /V respectively. Then A N= N P — P Q = R S = S B ; therefore, A B is divided into the required number of equal parts (Fig. 13). This problem can also be used to divide A B into parts pro portional to given lines or parts by laying off on A C the required lengths and passing a line through the extreme division and the extremity of A B ; then draw parallels as in the foregoing problem. How to describe and engrave circles is the next point for consideration. At Fig. 14 is shown a series of circles which should be Fig. 14 drawn with the compasses by scratching on the metal. After they have been scratched in this way they are en graved with a square graver, making a fine hair line all the way around. After some practice in cutting them from the previously-made design, they should be engraved without any design. This class of work will come under the head of beginning exercises. It is good prac tice for the beginner to draw a series of such circles as these, of various diameters, in order to accustom himself to the use of compasses, which, though accomplished by a simple movement of the hand, yet requires some skill to execute dexterously. To inscribe a hexagon (Fig. 15), first describe a circle with any radius ; then draw a horizontal diameter CD ; with C as center and a radius equal to that of the circle describe arcs, cutting the circle at the points A and E. Now with D as center and with the same radius describe arcs, cutting Fig. 15 the circle at the points B and F. Lines drawn from A B, B D, D F, F E, E C and C A will make chords forming the hexagon, A B D F E C A. It will be seen that the side of a hexagon is equal to the radius of the circumscribed circle, thus forming six 20 The Art of Engraving. equilateral triangles, as C O A C, any of which can be subdivided into any number of equal parts. To divide an angle into any number of equal parts, we pro ceed as follows (Fig. -b 16) : "Let B A C be any angle ; with A as center and any radius asAD draw arc DE ; with D and E as cen ters and a radius greater than one-half of angle B A C, draw Fig arcs intersecting at F; a line drawn from the point A through the point F will bisect the angle. Similarly the angle B A /"can be bisected, and so on. To erect a per- t pendicular at an ex tremity of a given straight line (Fig. 17), let A B be any given line. Then, with any radius as C B describe an arc A which cuts A B and Fig. 17 passes through the point B and con tinue the arc ; draw D C and prolong to intersect arc at G ; a line drawn through G B, as E B, is the required perpendicular. To draw a tangent to a circle at a given point in the circumference, we pro ceed thus (Fig. 18) : A tangent to a circle or other 9 curve is a line which touches the curve at the point without crossing it. Supposing 0 to be the center of a circle 3 inches in diameter, and P the  Mechanical Drawing. 21 point at which it is required to draw the tangent ; through O and P draw a dotted line and prolong this line outside the circle a dis tance P Q equal to the radius of the circle. This bisector will pass through P and be a tangent to the circle at that point. This problem may be constructed by making O Q a definite length and then drawing a perpendicular to it at the point P. To inscribe a square in a given circle (Fig. 19), draw a circle 3 inches in diameter ; with a T-square and 45 ° triangle, draw the diameters A C, B D at right angles to each other and each at 45° to the horizontal ; join the ends of these diameters, and the inscribed figure will be the required square. To draw an ellipse should also be part of the knowledge of the beginner Fig. 10 (Fig. 20). An ellipse is a curved plane figure, the shape of which is often used in engraving. Such articles as pin trays, bread trays and servers are often made in this shape, and especially for die cutting the outline of an ellipse is often used for circumscribing a monogram. To draw a perfect ellipse 3 inches long, draw A B 2 inches long and place a pin upright in the drawing-board at each end of A B ; now double a strong thread, silk is preferred, and tie a knot in the double thread so that the loop will be exactly 2^ inches long. (This may require a few trials to do nicely. ) Fit;. 20 Place the looped thread over the pins and with a pencil-point draw the string straight, as at C ; then pass the pencil around as is shown by the arrow, keeping the thread always taught ; the curve traced by the pencil point will be a perfect ellipse. It is said that if we draw a circle on a card-board and then cut it out and hold it squarely before the face, it will appear circular ; but if we tip it in any direction, so that one edge approaches the eye, it will no longer appear circular, but elliptical. We learn from this that an ellipse may be any shape between a true circle and a straight line. The method shown in Fig. 20 is not a convenient 22 The Art of Engraving. one and is here given only because it traces a perfect ellipse and shows the correct proportion. There are several methods of draw ing an ellipse nearly accurate, but the most convenient is that where the curve is made up of arcs smoothly joined. The method above described for drawing an ellipse is very useful for drawing such outlines for die cutting as will be referred to later on. To draw an ellipse by means of circular arcs (Fig. 21), draw A B, the major axis, 3 inches long, and C D, the minor axis, 2 inches long, and at right angles to A B at its center O ; from B lay off B 1 equal to C D, and di- f vide 1 A into three equal parts. This can be most conveniently done by trial with the dividers ; from O lay off o b and o a, each equal to two of the three parts just found ; from a and b, with a b as a radius, draw arcs intersecting at e and f; next, from e and f are drawn dotted lines through a and b, which are prolonged some distance to c d h and i ; now from e, with the radius e C, draw the arc c C d, and from f in like manner the arc h D i\ from B, with a radius B d, strike a short arc across A B, which will intersect very near b ; from this last intersection as a center draw the arc d B i ; in a similar way find the center for and draw the arc c A h. These four arcs complete a regular ellipse. Sufficient has been said of the advisability of these few exercises in mechanical drawings to make further mention unnecessary, but in the course of his studies the student will observe that a knowl edge of right angles, perpendiculars, arcs and circles will be of much value to him.  CHAPTER III. TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR THE BEGINNER. In beginning the exercises in engraving, the student sHould first supply himself with a small bottle or brick of Chinese white, which can be obtained at any art store. This Chinese white is used by wetting the finger and rubbing on the white and thus transferring it to the metal upon which he desires to engrave, by rubbing a thin coating over the same. This white dries almost instantaneously and leaves a pure white surface, upon which any design can be drawn with a pencil, after which it can be scratched on with a stylus or engraved directly through the Chinese white and then washed off. This method of designing is very useful for pro tecting the surfaces of some metals. Chinese white is most desirable as a means of designing on satin-finished surfaces. The student should also provide himself with a box of transfer wax, for the making of which there are many different formulas. The writer has found the following to be the best : 3 parts beeswax. 3 parts tallow, i part Canada balsam, i part olive oil. This wax is not only used for transferring engraved designs from one piece to another, but is also used to protect the surface of polished articles to design through with a rubber-pointed stylus. Two pencils, one hard and one medium, should also be among the outfit of the beginner, together with a stylus and a straight edge. The stylus is made of hard rubber, one end of which is steel and pointed, used in scratching on designs where such method is required. An alcohol lamp for heating wax should also be on the engraver's table. A cake of engraver's cement, a block of hard wood, into which the point of the graver has to be jabbed to remove the burr after rubbing on the oilstone ; a fine-grained Arkansas oilstone free from spots, a sheet of oooo French emery paper, and one sand-bag pad of the style shown at Fig. 21 a. The emery paper is cut up into slips about 1 inch wide and 2 inches 23 2-1 The Art of Engraving. long, and for convenience can be cemented to a block of wood the same size or can be used on the work bench direct. The time was when engravers found it necessary to make their own engraving tools. At the present time, however, it is not considered advisable, as they are made in such quantities by manufacturers as cheapens their pro duction to such an extent that it is practically a waste of time for the individual artificer to manufacture his own. Moreover, he may not be able to select a good quality of steel nor properly temper it. The first graver for the novice's use is a square graver of a No. 6 or No. 7 size, or a taper graver if preferred. The gravers are sold separate from the handles. The pointed end of the graver is driven into the handle, leaving the graver the original length. The blade is inserted in the handle, so as to appear as shown at Fig. 23 ; A and B are the cutting edges. After placing the graver in the handle in this manner the next step is to find the exact length for the graver. This is a point which has been discussed by a great many writers on the subject, and is also a very weak point with some beginners, they not knowing the exact length. On seriously considering the question and arranging a means of measuring which will adapt itself to any sized person, we have found that if the graver is placed in the end as shown at Fig. 22, with the handle in the palm of the hand, the oval part being next to the hand, the flat part downward ; then the thumb be slided down on the blade of the graver in the direction of the arrow as far as possible, stretching the thumb to its limit, and the graver Fig. » 2 broken off at that point, the length of the graver thus shown is positively correct for the hand which was used as a means of measuring. This is true from the fact that the point of the graver should be as near the end of the thumb as is convenient.  Tools and Materials for the Beginner. 25 not protruding more than a few inches beyond the thumb when the thumb is used as a fulcrum, guide or brake in actual execution. It would, in this case, protrude about one-half inch beyond the thumb if the measurement were made as above described, because, in making these measurements, the thumb was stretched down to the blade further than the natural position of holding it would require. Having thus measured the length of the graver and broken it off in a vise, we now grind it on the front on an angle of 45°. A carborundum wheel used on a small lathe about the size of a foot polishing lathe used by jewelers, is a very convenient means of grinding a graver and is much preferred to the old method of the Fig. 24 grinding stone. The latter, of course, will suffice in the absence of the former. Inasmuch as the carborundum wheel is used without water, a glass of water can be used for keeping the graver cool. Great care should be taken, however, not to heat the point of the graver to any extent, as such heating would have a tendency to deteriorate the quality of the steel for the purpose for which it would be used. After the graver has been ground off on the front as above described, it is next ground off on the under side, B and A, Fig. 24, the left side of which is shown at C, Fig. 24. The object in grinding the graver off on the under side in this manner is obvious to those who have practiced the art. For the benefit of the beginner, however, it may be stated that if the graver were used without cutting it off on the under side in this manner, the graver, not heeled up and held on sufficient angle to cut a reason able depth nicely, would appear on the angle as shown at Fig. 25. It is plain to the novice that a graver on this angle would not leave sufficient room between the article being engraved (if it were an 26 The Art of Engraving. article the size of a coffin plate or any article where the handle would come over such article) to grasp the handle of the tool, which, if properly grasped, requires that the fingers go around and on the under side of the handle. It will be seen, therefore, that an angle such as is shown at Fig. 26, will be required, and to gain this angle the graver must be heeled up as described. A graver for the various irregularly-shaped articles that come to the hands of an engraver or jeweler can be heeled up to enable the operator to easily cut into any such irregularly-shaped pieces. For illustration, in letters cut in the bottom of a bon-bon dish, say, Fig. 25 two inches depth, a graver should be heeled up still higher than shown at Fig. 25. In fact, some gravers are used for cutting any depth bon-bon dishes where the top of the graver is used as the front angle. This, of course, would necessitate the graver being cut on the under side at an angle of about 6o°, using the under side of the graver as the horizontal plane for finding such angles. Gravers are cut out in this way for engraving the bowls of tea spoons. The graver should be so ground on the under side that the angles of the under side would taper back from the point of the graver, as shown at Fig. 26. The object of this is to make the Fig. 86 angles of the cutting side acute, thus making it easier to cut shade strokes. The angle of the cutting sides of the square graver can be ground to form either a square or a lozenge-shaped graver. Some prefer to grind the under side so as to make the graver perfectly square. There is no objection to this shape ; in fact, it is probably preferred by a majority of engravers. After the graver has been thus ground it is next sharpened on the front on the oil stone by holding in the hand as shown at  Tools and Materials for the Beginner. 27 Fig. 27, moving the hand in the direction of the arrows—right and left. It is then pushed backward and forward on the under sides that have been cut off to smoothen down the rough surfaces left by the grinding process. The under side of the graver should be kept perfectly flat at all times. This is one of the great errors made by the majority of inexperienced engravers ; they are careless Fig. 27 as to the condition of the under side of the graver, which, in a majority of cases, is the cause of the graver slipping. In the process of whetting the graver on the oilstone, great care should be exercised to avoid rounding the under side of the front of the graver. These angles should be sharp and clean and there should be only one angle. We often see gravers that have three or four angles instead of one. Technical students should appreciate the fact that this condition of the graver will cause no end of trouble. After pushing the graver backward and forward as described, if we turn the bottom side up and look at the cutting edges of it, as shown at Fig. 24, it is to be observed that the edge of the graver is very rough, a magnified view of which is shown at Fig. 28. Many beginners in engraving are cognizant of the fact that it is necessary to polish a graver in order to make it cut bright, but the author's experience has been that while they are aware of this necessity they are also unaware of the exact cause of the graver cutting rough before being polished. In other words, they do not understand or have not given consideration to the theoretical reason, which I believe all engravers should Fig. 28 know. There have been articles written and published in the magazines from time to time in which microscopic views of the edge of a razor in perfect order have been illustrated, showing the great roughness of the extreme edge, which one who has not 28 The Art of Engraving. given some thought to such details would consider almost unreason able ; yet it is a fact that the surface of such cutting instruments are very rough when revealed to the eye under a microscope. This is the condition of the cutting edge of the graver and is the condi tion which causes the ragged cutting on metals. The reason that these rough edges exist is that the particles or molecules of stone, being harder than the metal, cut, grind or groove the same and scratch a line across the surface of the graver which is being ground as far as the cutting edge of the same, where the line thus cut terminates and causes a notch in the extreme cutting edge, as shown in Fig. 28. Now, in order to make the graver cut perfectly bright, it will be seen that we must put the graver in such condi tion that these lines will not exist. The most common way of polishing a graver is that of using diamontine and a boxwood block, as follows : Place a small quantity of diamontine on the surface of the boxwood block and draw the graver backward directly parallel with the blade. This, however, is not the best method, and we will endeavor to demonstrate the error in using it ; at the same time there are some very fine engravers who do use it, but a majority of the best engravers acknowledge the error. Some engravers use the diamon tine and boxwood block, the same as described for the method we recommend, which, of course, gives better results. However, the old method in question being adopted, let us first see what the con dition of the graver would be after being subjected to this treat ment. First, as the graver comes from the oilstone it is in a condition as shown at Fig. 28. If it has been polished with the diamontine, the particles of the diamontine being finer than the particles of the oilstone, we have simply decreased to a certain extent the grooves made by the wetting on the oilstone, and have rounded them as shown at Fig. 29. Now, it is obvious that by the time sufficient polishing has been done to remove these grooves naturally by polishing them in the direction in which they were originally made, the point of the graver would be rounding, a matter which should be obviated. A graver will not cut perfectly bright if polished in this way. It will cut what many would consider bright, but if the incision is looked at through a magnifying glass the fact will be revealed that there Fig. 39 are scratched lines visible. Also the particles of the  Tools and Materials for the Beginner. 29 diamontine, especially those ugly particles that exist therein, will, as the graver is drawn backward, roll out from under the cutting edge and drag over the same, which will make the edge of the cutting angle rounding. Having thus explained the errors of this method, let us briefly consider how the graver can be put in a more satisfactory condition. To prove the fact that it is only necessary to change the angles of the scratched lines shown at Fig. 29, caused by the oilstone in the direction of the angle of the cutting edge of the graver, let the reader take his graver and move it in the direction of the arrow on his oilstone, as shown at Fig. 30, which will be moving the graver parallel with the cutting angle, thus making the scratches parallel with said angle and because of the fact of their running thus and not crossing the cutting edge of the graver the notches, as shown at Fig. 29, will not exist. Consequently, the graver will cut bright. We must not, however, be under- Fig. 30 stood as recommending the use of the oil stone for polishing the graver, but mention the fact simply to prove that the theory explained is correct. The best method is to draw it on a piece of 0000 French emery paper, after the graver has been sharpened on the oilstone as previously described, in the direction that the arrow at Fig. 30 indicates, so that the line on the under side of the cutting angle, in thiccase the right under side, scratched by the emery paper will cross the original line scratched and run parallel with the cutting edge of the graver, thus obliterating the former and leaving only fine scratch lines, so smooth and in such a direction that the cutting edge will be perfectly free from sufficient roughness to cause the graver to cut a rough line. In preparing the 0000 emery paper it can be smoothed down somewhat by rubbing two pieces together. Some engravers cement or glue the paper to pieces of plate glass or a block of hard wood. The size of emery paper should be about 1 by 2 inches. Now that the graver is in perfect order we are prepared with our knowledge of mechanical drawing to commence cutting.  CHAPTER IV. FIRST EXERCISES IN ENGRAVING. First get some pieces of copper zinced on one side, sized about 2" x 3" or 3" x 4", using the zinced or tinned side of the copper for engraving, as the zinced or tinned surface prevents the copper from tarnishing, and as a line cut through it to the copper makes a greater contrast than would be shown if the surface was copper. The graver is held in the hand as described and illustrated at Fig. 22. With the parallel rule or a straight edge draw parallel lines, as shown at A, Fig. 31. These lines can be any desired distance apart. A piece of zinc of the size mentioned is cemented on to a block of the same size and about ^IDOo one inch in thickness, the surface of the block being first vered with en graver's wax. The wax is then heated with an alcohol lamp and the plate is heated at the same time and laid on to the block. The designing of these lines can be done on the surface of the plates by the use of the Chinese white and a lead pencil, or they can be scratched directly on to the metal. After drawing these straight lines, the graver being held in the hand as directed, allowing the thumb to act as a guide and sliding it gently over the surface of the metal, the lines are cut out, care being taken to begin the lines on the same line perpendicularly and to end them up in the same way, cutting all the lines the same depth and same width. The widths of lines in engraving are made by turning the graver over to the right. In making these lines the beginner should hold the graver so that it cuts a V-shaped  First Exercises in Engraving. 31 incision. A graver in the position shown at Fig. 23 will cut a line of this shape. The natural tendency of all beginners is to turn the graver away from them, which would be to the right. This tendency is universal and is natural, as the convenient position of holding one's hand is such the graver held in it would cut with a wide incision. Therefore, in cutting a hair line (in engravers' parlance, a fine line), the engraver must exert the muscles of the forearm so as to hold it firmly to the left more than is natural. Such little details may seem to the novice unnecessary, but too much stress cannot be laid upon this particular point, as the author is personally acquainted with a number of engravers who, after a few years of experience, are troubled with this common difficulty of cutting their hair lines a shaded incision instead of V-shaped. After practicing these perpendicular and horizontal lines, as above described, the next exercise is to make the lines in crescent shape, both to the right and to the left, increasing in their length as they protrude in those directions. The eye of the beginner should be educated to distinguish what angles and straight lines are, and he should practice cutting these crescent-shaped lines to begin them and end them the same depth and width and parallel with the other, each one being a little longer than the former and the graduations increasing uniformly. It may be well for the beginner to draw angle lines at (), Fig. 31, and then cut the crescent lines instead of the lines thus made, after which he should practice it without the guide lines. The next exercise would be to engrave without drawing scroll lines horizontally as shown at B, Fig. 31. These scroll lines are one of the most difficult in cutting which the engraver has to execute, and yet, strange as it may seem, they are the lines which the beginner has to learn first. The author's experience has been that many engravers do not thoroughly appreciate from a technical standpoint just what a scroll is. These scroll lines we will have occasion to mention in connection with lettering later on, and a thorough knowledge of their formation gained at this point will be of great value to the methodic student. A scroll line is merely two arcs joined together, the arcs being drawn with the center of one above the line and the other below. The lines have exactly the same curve and are exactly the same length from end to center and center to end. To illustrate this point we show at C, Fig. 31, a scroll thus made but not connected. 32 The Art of Engraving. We will now take upon ourselves the responsibility of shading, the first exercise of which is to make crescent lines, as shown at Fig. 32. In starting these lines the graver is held so as to cut a V-shaped incision, and as it is pushed forward it is gradually turned to the right from the operator, which changes the angle of the incision, decreasing it on the left and increasing it on the right, thus making a wide stroke. It is gradually (/ / / moved and turned thus until the center of (ii the crescent is reached, from which point to I \ \ the end the same graduation of movement F1 3!j in the opposite direction is observed. This work of cutting these crescent cuts or arcs shaded in this manner should be practiced a great deal by the beginner. The experience of the author has been that the average student is so anxious to advance in his work that he is not willing to practice the preliminaries sufficiently to warrant great accuracy in cutting before he advances to the desired stages. It would seem as if triangles and squares, as shown at D, Fig. 31, would be easily engraved, and many beginners imagine that engraving such designs is unnecessary, yet the older engravers know that it is not an easy matter to engrave lines and have them meet or intersect at a given point without showing such point of meeting or intersection. The great trouble is that the graver will do what is called backing up, or, in other words, when the graver is inserted into the metal and pushed forward, a little cut is made back of where the graver started in. This can be avoided, as will be explained further on, but the tendency to this error will exist. An explanation of avoiding this is not necessary at this stage, as the point to be gained by the practice here outlined is to enable the beginner to so form these exercises that when he engraves one line up to the point of another that he can stop at that particular point. In other words, so that he can stop when he so desires. It should be borne in mind that these lines should be exactly the same width and same depth from beginning to end, and that they should meet accurately. It is often seen that engravers, even of some experience, will disconnect lines in forming figures and letters where the same should be connected, which makes a very inelegant appearance. After the exercises above illustrated have been thor oughly practiced the student is ready to engrave letters.  First Exercises in Engraving. 33 It is not unusual to start a student engraving on script letters, but a number of years of experience has convinced the author that an easier style of letter should be used for the beginner in a series of graded exercises, and while it is a fact that block letters or Gothic are in some classes of work considered more difficult than others, I think, however, that in bright cut engraving they are easier than the script. It is the script engraving that is mostly desired, and jewelers that are engaging engravers will usually ask for and insist on first-class script lettering ; and in many cases we find artists in mechanical engraving who cannot do creditable script engraving. We will, therefore, begin our lettering with Gothic or block letters, and will now lay aside the graver that we have been practicing these preliminaries with and take up another graver. THE FLAT-FACED GRAVER. As we lay aside this graver temporarily it must be borne in mind that we are not to leave it entirely, that it should be taken up and practiced with in conjunction with the work that we are about to take up, because the use of the square graver and the flat-face graver are radically different in detail of operation. We will take a flat-face graver, shown at Fig. 33, ground on an angle of 45°, ground off at the top so as to decrease the width of same perpen dicularly and to enable the engraver to sharpen it with more rapidity on the front. This graver is also heeled up on the under side sufficient to raise the graver so as to.